1887

Chapter 6 : Japanese Encephalitis Prevention and Control: Advances, Challenges, and New Initiatives

Authors: Marc Fischer1, Susan Hills2, Erin Staples3, Barbara Johnson4, Mansour Yaich5, Tom Solomon6
VIEW AFFILIATIONS HIDE AFFILIATIONS
Affiliations: 1: Arboviral Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Borne, and Enteric Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO 80521; 2: Japanese Encephalitis Project, PATH, Seattle, WA 98107; 3: Arboviral Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Borne, and Enteric Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO 80521; 4: Arboviral Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Borne, and Enteric Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO 80521; 5: Japanese Encephalitis Project, PATH, 01210 Ferney-Voltaire, France; 6: Viral Brain Infections Group, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GA, England
Content Type: Monograph
Publication Year: 2008

Category: Clinical Microbiology

MyBook is a cheap paperback edition of the original book and will be sold at uniform, low price.

Preview this chapter:
Preview Magnify
Zoom in
Zoomout

Japanese Encephalitis Prevention and Control: Advances, Challenges, and New Initiatives, Page 1 of 2

| /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555815592/9781555814441_Chap06-1.gif /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555815592/9781555814441_Chap06-2.gif

Abstract:

This chapter provides an overview of Japanese encephalitis (JE) epidemiology, prevention, and control and discusses recent advances, current challenges, and new initiatives in JE surveillance, diagnosis, and vaccines. Human vaccination is the most effective and sustainable measure to prevent JE. Interventions to control the mosquito vector or animal hosts may also lessen the number of human JEV infections; however, these methods have significant limitations. Urbanization, improved socioeconomic conditions, and changes in agricultural practices have contributed to significant reductions in the burden of JE in several Asian countries. There are three types of JE vaccines that are currently available. They are inactivated mouse brain-derived JE vaccine, live attenuated cell culture-derived SA 14-14-2 vaccine, and inactivated cell culture-derived P3 vaccine. Inactivated mouse brain-derived vaccines and a live attenuated cell culture-derived SA 14-14-2 vaccine are used in many countries. Inactivated cell culture-derived P3 vaccines are available only in China. Improved understanding of the epidemiology and an accurate measurement of the true JE disease burden in countries where it is endemic are needed to stimulate and guide the implementation of new vaccine strategies and policies. JE remains a significant but preventable public health problem. Substantial progress has been made in defining the true burden of illness and expanding the use of available vaccines. With sustained commitment and funding, safe, effective, and affordable JE vaccines can and should be integrated into the routine immunization programs in all areas where JE is endemic.

Citation: Fischer M, Hills S, Staples E, Johnson B, Yaich M, Solomon T. 2008. Japanese Encephalitis Prevention and Control: Advances, Challenges, and New Initiatives, p 93-124. In Scheld W, Hammer S, Hughes J (ed), Emerging Infections 8. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815592.ch6

Key Concept Ranking

Clinical and Public Health
0.41087183
0.41087183
Highlighted Text: Show | Hide
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

Figures

Japanese Encephalitis Prevention and Control: Advances, Challenges, and New Initiatives
[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-1,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-1,properties={foaf_givenname=Marc, foaf_name=Marc Fischer, foaf_surname=Fischer, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-aff1]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-2,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-2,properties={foaf_givenname=Susan, foaf_name=Susan Hills, foaf_surname=Hills, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-aff2]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-3,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-3,properties={foaf_givenname=Erin, foaf_name=Erin Staples, foaf_surname=Staples, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-aff3]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-4,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-4,properties={foaf_givenname=Barbara, foaf_name=Barbara Johnson, foaf_surname=Johnson, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-aff4]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-5,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-5,properties={foaf_givenname=Mansour, foaf_name=Mansour Yaich, foaf_surname=Yaich, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-aff5]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-6,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-6,properties={foaf_givenname=Tom, foaf_name=Tom Solomon, foaf_surname=Solomon, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-aff6]]}]]
Citation: Fischer M, Hills S, Staples E, Johnson B, Yaich M, Solomon T. 2008. Japanese Encephalitis Prevention and Control: Advances, Challenges, and New Initiatives, p 93-124. In Scheld W, Hammer S, Hughes J (ed), Emerging Infections 8. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815592.ch6
/content/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06.ch06fig01
Figure 1.
Japanese encephalitis cases reported from selected countries in Asia, 1973 to 1990. Data for 1973 to 1990 include reported cases from China, South Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and Thailand; data for 1978 to 1990 also include cases reported from India and Nepal. Adapted from reference .
10.1128/9781555815592/ch6fig1_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815592/ch6fig1.gif
Image of Figure 1.
Figure 1.

Japanese encephalitis cases reported from selected countries in Asia, 1973 to 1990. Data for 1973 to 1990 include reported cases from China, South Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and Thailand; data for 1978 to 1990 also include cases reported from India and Nepal. Adapted from reference .

Citation: Fischer M, Hills S, Staples E, Johnson B, Yaich M, Solomon T. 2008. Japanese Encephalitis Prevention and Control: Advances, Challenges, and New Initiatives, p 93-124. In Scheld W, Hammer S, Hughes J (ed), Emerging Infections 8. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815592.ch6
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06.ch06fig02
Figure 2.
Transmission cycle of JEV. JEV is transmitted in an enzootic cycle between mosquitoes and amplifying vertebrate hosts, primarily pigs and wading birds. Humans are a dead-end host in the JEV transmission cycle, with brief and low levels of viremia. Humans play no role in the maintenance or amplification of JEV, and the virus is not transmitted directly from person to person.
10.1128/9781555815592/ch6fig2_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815592/ch6fig2.gif
Image of Figure 2.
Figure 2.

Transmission cycle of JEV. JEV is transmitted in an enzootic cycle between mosquitoes and amplifying vertebrate hosts, primarily pigs and wading birds. Humans are a dead-end host in the JEV transmission cycle, with brief and low levels of viremia. Humans play no role in the maintenance or amplification of JEV, and the virus is not transmitted directly from person to person.

Citation: Fischer M, Hills S, Staples E, Johnson B, Yaich M, Solomon T. 2008. Japanese Encephalitis Prevention and Control: Advances, Challenges, and New Initiatives, p 93-124. In Scheld W, Hammer S, Hughes J (ed), Emerging Infections 8. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815592.ch6
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06.ch06fig03
Figure 3.
Geographic range of JE. Reprinted from reference .
10.1128/9781555815592/ch6fig3_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815592/ch6fig3.gif
Image of Figure 3.
Figure 3.

Geographic range of JE. Reprinted from reference .

Citation: Fischer M, Hills S, Staples E, Johnson B, Yaich M, Solomon T. 2008. Japanese Encephalitis Prevention and Control: Advances, Challenges, and New Initiatives, p 93-124. In Scheld W, Hammer S, Hughes J (ed), Emerging Infections 8. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815592.ch6
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06.ch06fig04
Figure 4.
Impact of JE vaccination in Japan, 1946 to 1999. Adapted from reference .
10.1128/9781555815592/ch6fig4_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815592/ch6fig4.gif
Image of Figure 4.
Figure 4.

Impact of JE vaccination in Japan, 1946 to 1999. Adapted from reference .

Citation: Fischer M, Hills S, Staples E, Johnson B, Yaich M, Solomon T. 2008. Japanese Encephalitis Prevention and Control: Advances, Challenges, and New Initiatives, p 93-124. In Scheld W, Hammer S, Hughes J (ed), Emerging Infections 8. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815592.ch6
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint

References

/content/book/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06
1. Andersen, M. M.,, and T. Ronne. 1991. Side-effects with Japanese encephalitis vaccine. Lancet 337: 1044.
2. Ayukawa, R.,, H. Fujimoto,, M. Ayabe,, H. Shoji,, R. Matsui,, Y. Iwata,, H. Fukuda,, K. Ochi,, K. Noda,, Y. Ono,, K. Sakai,, Y. Takehisa,, and K. Yasui. 2004. An unexpected outbreak of Japanese encephalitis in Chugoku District of Japan, 2002. Jpn. J. Infect. Dis. 57: 63– 66.
3. Beasley, D. W. C.,, P. Lewthwaite,, and T. Solomon. 2008. Current use and development of vaccines for Japanese encephalitis. Expert Opin. Biol. Ther. 8: 95– 106.
4. Benenson, M. W.,, F. H. Top,, W. Gresso,, C. W. Ames,, and L. B. Alstatt. 1975. The virulence to man of Japanese encephalitis virus in Thailand. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 24: 974– 980.
5. Berg, S. W.,, B. S. Mitchell,, R. K. Hanson,, R. P. Olafson,, R. P. Williams,, J. E. Tueller,, R. J. Burton,, D. M. Novak,, T. F. Tsai,, and F. S. Wignall. 1997. Systemic reactions in U.S. Marine Corps personnel who received Japanese encephalitis vaccine. Clin. Infect. Dis. 24: 265– 266.
6. Bharati, K.,, and S. Vrati. 2006. Japanese encephalitis: development of new candidate vaccines. Expert Rev. Anti-Infect. Ther. 4: 313– 324.
7. Bista, M. B.,, and J. M. Shrestha. 2005. Epidemiological situation of Japanese encephalitis in Nepal. J. Nepal Med. Assoc. 44: 51– 56.
8. Bista, M. B.,, M. K. Banerjee,, S. H. Shin,, J. B. Tandan,, M. H. Kim,, Y. M. Sohn,, H. C. Ohrr,, J. L. Tang,, and S. B. Halstead. Efficacy of single-dose SA 14-14-2 vaccine against Japanese encephalitis: a case control study. Lancet 358: 791– 795.
9. Bonington, A.,, M. Harbord,, R. N. Davidson,, I. Cropley,, and R. H. Behrens. 1995. Immunisation against Japanese encephalitis. Lancet 345: 1445– 1446.
10. Buescher, E. L.,, W. F. Scherer,, M. Z. Rosenberg,, I. Gresser,, J. L. Hardy,, and H. R. Bullock. 1959. Ecologic studies of Japanese encephalitis virus in Japan. II. Mosquito infection. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 8: 651– 664.
11. Buescher, E. L.,, W. F. Scherer,, H. E. McClure,, J. T. Moyer,, M. Z. Rosenbereg,, M. Yoshii,, and Y. Okada. 1959. Ecologic studies of Japanese encephalitis virus in Japan. IV. Avian infection. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 8: 678– 688.
12. Buescher, E. L.,, and W. F. Scherer. 1959. Ecologic studies of Japanese encephalitis virus in Japan. IX. Epidemiologic correlations and conclusions. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 8: 719– 722.
13. Bundo, K.,, A. Igarashi,, K. Morita,, K. Hayashi,, S. Urasawa,, and M. Ura. 1983. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay on Japanese encephalitis virus. VI. Antibody response in human vaccinees. Trop. Med. 25: 23– 35.
14. Burke, D. S.,, A. Nisalak,, and C. H. Hoke. 1986. Field trial of a Japanese encephalitis diagnostic kit. J. Med. Virol. 18: 41– 49.
15. Burke, D. S.,, W. Lorsomrudee,, C. J. Leake,, C. H. Hoke,, A. Nisalak,, V. Chongswadsi,, and T. Laorakpongse. 1985. Fatal outcome in Japanese encephalitis. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 34: 1203– 1210.
16. Burke, D. S.,, A. Nisalak,, M. A. Ussery,, T. Laorakpongse,, and S. Chantavibul. 1985. Kinetics of IgM and IgG responses to Japanese encephalitis virus in human serum and cerebrospinal fluid. J. Infect. Dis. 151: 1093– 1099.
17. Caramello, P.,, F. Canta,, R. Balbiano,, F. Lipani,, S. Ariaudo,, M. De Agostini,, G. Calleri,, L. Boglione,, and A. Di Caro. 2007. A case of imported JE acquired during short travel in Vietnam. Are current recommendations about vaccination broader? J. Travel Med. 14: 346– 348.
18. Cardosa, M. J.,, T. P. Hooi,, and P. Kaur. 1995. Japanese encephalitis virus is an important cause of encephalitis among children in Penang. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 26: 272– 275.
19. Carey, D. E.,, R. M. Myers,, R. Reuben,, and J. K. G. Webb. 1969. Japanese encephalitis in South India: a summary of recent knowledge. J. Indian Med. Assoc. 52: 10– 15.
20. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2007. Health Information for International Travel 2008. Mosby/Elsevier, Oxford, United Kingdom.
21. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2004. Acute flaccid paralysis surveillance systems for expansion to other diseases, 2003–2004. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 53: 1113– 1116.
22. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1993. Inactivated Japanese encephalitis virus vaccine. Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm. Rep. 42 (RR-1) : 1– 16.
23. Chanama, S.,, W. Sukprasert,, A. Sa-ngasang,, A. A-Nuegoonpipat,, S. Sangkitporn,, I. Kurane,, and S. Anantapreecha. 2005. Detection of Japanese encephalitis (JE) virus-specific IgM in cerebrospinal fluid and serum samples from JE patients. Jpn. J. Infect. Dis. 58: 294– 296.
24. Chhour, Y. M.,, G. Ruble,, R. Hong,, K. Minn,, Y. Kdan,, T. Sok,, A. Nisalak,, K. S. A. Myint,, D. W. Vaughn,, and T. P. Endy. 2002. Hospital-based diagnosis of hemorrhagic fever, encephalitis, and hepatitis in Cambodian children. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 8: 485– 489.
25. Chunsuttiwat, S.,, and P. Warachit. 1995. Japanese encephalitis in Thailand. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 26 (Suppl. 3) : 43– 46.
26. Crill, W. D.,, N. B. Trainor,, and G.-J. J. Chang. 2007. A detailed mutagenesis study of flavivirus cross-reactive epitopes using West Nile virus-like particles. J. Gen. Virol. 88: 1169– 1174.
27. Dapeng, L.,, Z. Konghua,, S. Jinduo,, Y. Renguo,, H. Hongru,, L. Baoxiu,, L. Yong,, and W. Ze. 1994. The protective effect of bed nets impregnated with pyrethroid insecticide and vaccination against Japanese encephalitis. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 88: 632– 634.
28. Dapeng, L.,, Y. Huijin,, X. Liu,, S. Jindou,, and W. Ze. 1994. The efficacy of Japanese encephalitis vaccine in Henan, China: a case-control study. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 25: 643– 646.
29. Defraites, R. F.,, J. M. Gambel,, C. H. Hoke, Jr.,, J. L. Sanchez,, B. G. Withers,, N. Karabatsos,, R. E. Shope,, S. Tirrell,, I. Yoshida,, M. Takagi,, C. K. Meschievitz,, and T. F. Tsai. 1999. Japanese encephalitis vaccine (inactivated, BIKEN) in U.S. soldiers: immunogenicity and safety of vaccine administered in two dosing regimens. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 61: 288– 293.
30. Ding, D.,, Z. Hang,, S. J. Zhao,, J. D. Clemens,, B. Zhou,, B. Wang,, M. S. Huang,, J. Zeng,, Q. H. Guo,, W. Liu,, F. B. Tao,, and Z. Y. Xu. 2007. Long-term disability from acute childhood Japanese encephalitis in Shanghai, China. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 77: 528– 533.
31. Ding, D.,, P. E. Kilgore,, J. D. Clemens,, W. Liu,, and Z.-Y. Xu. 2003. Cost-effectiveness of routine immunization to control Japanese encephalitis in Shanghai, China. Bull. W. H. O. 81: 334– 342.
32. Endy, T. P.,, and A. Nisalak. 2002. Japanese encephalitis virus: ecology and epidemiology. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol 267: 11– 48.
33. Ferguson, M.,, S. Johnes,, L. Li,, A. Heath,, and A. Barrett. 2007. Effect of genomic variation in the challenge virus on the neutralization titres of recipients of inactivated JE vaccines—report of a collaborative study on PRNT50 assays for Japanese encephalitis virus (JE) antibodies. Biologicals 36: 111– 116.
34. Ferguson, M.,, I. Kurane,, O. Wimalaratne,, and J. Shin. 2007. WHO informal consultation on the scientific basis of specifications for production and control of inactivated Japanese encephalitis vaccines for human use, Geneva, Switzerland, 1–2 June 2006. Vaccine 25: 5233– 5243.
35. Fischer, M.,, and G. Campbell. 2007. Japanese encephalitis, p. 190–201. In P. M. Arquin,, P. E. Kozarsky, and, C. Reed (ed.), Health Information for International Travel 2008. Mosby/Elsevier, Oxford, United Kingdom.
36. Franklin, Q. J. 1999. Sudden death after typhoid and Japanese encephalitis vaccination in a young male taking pseudoephedrine. Mil. Med. 164: 157– 159.
37. Fukuda, H.,, F. Umehara,, N. Kawahigashi,, M. Suehara,, and M. Osame. 1997. Acute disseminated myelitis after Japanese B encephalitis vaccination. J. Neurol. Sci. 148: 113– 115.
38. Gajanana, A.,, R. Rajendran,, P. P. Samuel,, V. Thenmozhi,, T. F. Tsai,, J. Kimura-Kuroda,, and R. Reuben. 1997. Japanese encephalitis in South Arcot District, Tamil Nadu, India: a three-year longitudinal study of vector abundance and infection frequency. J. Med. Entomol. 34: 651– 659.
39. Gajanana, A.,, V. Thenmozhi,, P. P. Samuel,, and R. Reuben. 1995. A community-based study of subclinical flavivirus infections in children in an area of Tamil Nadu, India, where Japanese encephalitis is endemic. Bull. W. H. O. 73: 237– 244.
40. Gambel, J. M.,, R. DeFraites,, C. Hoke,, A. Brown,, J. Sanchez,, N. Karabatsos,, T. Tsai,, and C. Meschievitz. 1995. Japanese encephalitis vaccine: persistence of antibody up to 3 years after a three-dose primary series. J. Infect. Dis. 171: 1074.
41. Gingrich, J. B.,, A. Nisalak,, J. R. Latendresse,, J. Sattabongkot,, C. H. Hoke,, J. Pomsdhit,, C. Chantalakana,, C. Satayaphanta,, K. Uechiewcharnkit,, and B. L. Innis. 1992. Japanese encephalitis virus in Bangkok: factors influencing vector infections in three suburban communities. J. Med. Entomol. 29: 436– 444.
42. Goh, K. T. 1996. Vaccines for Japanese encephalitis. Lancet 348: 340.
43. Gould, E. A.,, T. Solomon,, and J. S. Mackenzie. 2008. Does antiviral therapy have a role in the control of Japanese encephalitis? Antiviral Res. 78: 140– 149.
44. Grayston, J. T.,, S.-P. Wang,, and C.-H. Yen. 1962. Encephalitis on Taiwan. I. Introduction and epidemiology. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 11: 126– 130.
45. Gresser, I.,, J. L. Hardy,, S. M. K. Hu,, and W. F. Scherer. 1962. Factors influencing transmission of Japanese B encephalitis virus by a colonized strain of Culex tritaeniorhyncus Giles, from infected pigs and chicks to susceptible pigs and birds. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 7: 365– 373.
46. Grossman, R. A.,, R. Edelman,, M. Willhight,, S. Pantuwatana,, and S. Udomsakdi. 1973. Study of Japanese encephalitis virus in Chiangmai Valley, Thailand. III. Human seroepidemiology and inapparent infections. Am. J. Epidemiol. 98: 133– 149.
47. Grossman, R. A.,, R. Edelman,, and D. J. Gould. 1974. Study of Japanese encephalitis virus in Chiangmai Valley, Thailand. VI. Summary and conclusions. Am. J. Epidemiol. 100: 69– 76.
48. Ha, D. Q.,, V. T. G. Huong,, H. T. K. Loan,, D. Q. Thong,, and V. Deubel. 1994. Current situation of Japanese encephalitis in the south of Vietnam, 1976–1992. Trop. Med. 36: 202– 214.
49. Halstead, S. B.,, and T. F. Tsai. 2004. Japanese encephalitis vaccines, p. 919–958. In S. A. Plotkin and, W. A. Orenstein (ed.), Vaccines, 4th ed. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA.
50. Halstead, S. B.,, and J. Jacobson. Japanese encephalitis. Adv. Virus Res. 61: 103– 138.
51. Halstead, S. B.,, and C. R. Grosz. 1962. Subclinical Japanese encephalitis. I. Infection of Americans with limited residence in Korea. Am. J. Hyg. 75: 190– 201.
52. Hanna, J.,, G. Smith,, B. McCulloch,, C. T. Taylor,, A. T. Pyke,, and D. L. Brookes. 2005. An assessment of the interval between booster doses of Japanese encephalitis vaccine in the Torres Strait. Aust. N. Z. J. Public Health 29: 44– 47.
53. Hanna, J. N.,, S. A. Ritchie,, D. A. Phillips,, J. M. Lee,, S. L. Hills,, A. F. van den Hurk,, A. T. Pyke,, C. A. Johansen,, and J. S. Mackenzie. 1999. Japanese encephalitis in north Queensland, Australia, 1998. Med. J. Aust. 170: 533– 536.
54. Hanna, J. N.,, S. A. Ritchie,, D. A. Phillips,, J. Shield,, M. C. Bailey,, J. S. Mackenzie,, M. Poidinger,, B. J. McCall,, and P. J. Mills. 1996. An outbreak of Japanese encephalitis in the Torres Strait, Australia. Med. J. Aust. 165: 256– 260.
55. Henderson, A. 1984. Immunisation against Japanese encephalitis in Nepal: experience of 1152 subjects. J. R. Army Med. Corps 130: 188– 191.
56. Hennessy, S.,, L. Zhengle,, T. F. Tsai,, B. L. Strom,, W. Chao-Min,, L. Hui-Lian,, W. Tai-Xiang,, Y. Hong-Ji,, L. Qi-Mau,, N. Karabatsos,, W. B. Bilker,, and S. B. Halstead. 1996. Effectiveness of live-attenuated Japanese encephalitis vaccine (SA 14-14-2): a case-control study. Lancet 347: 1583– 1586.
57. Hill, M. N. 1970. Japanese encephalitis in Sarawak: studies on adult mosquito populations. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 64: 489– 496.
58. Hoke, C. H.,, A. Nisalak,, N. Sangawhipa,, S. Jatanasen,, T. Laorakapongse,, B. L. Innis,, S. Kotchasenee,, J. G. Gingrich,, J. Latendresse,, K. Fukai,, and D. S. Burke. 1988. Protection against Japanese encephalitis by inactivated vaccines. N. Engl. J. Med. 319: 608– 614.
59. Hoke, C. H.,, D. W. Vaughn,, A. Nisalak,, P. Intralawan,, S. Poolsuppasit,, V. Jongsawas,, U. Titsyakorn,, and R. T. Johnson. 1992. Effect of high-dose dexamethasone on the outcome of acute encephalitis due to Japanese encephalitis virus. J. Infect. Dis. 165: 631– 637.
60. Hombach, J.,, T. Solomon,, I. Kurane,, J. Jacobson,, and D. Wood. 2005. Report on a WHO consultation on immunological endpoints for evaluation of new Japanese encephalitis vaccines, WHO, Geneva, 2–3 September, 2004. Vaccine 23: 5205– 5211.
61. Huy, B. V.,, H. C. Tu,, T. V. Luan,, and R. Lindquist. 1994. Early mental and neurological sequelae after Japanese B encephalitis. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 25: 549– 553.
62. Igarashi, A. 2002. Control of Japanese encephalitis in Japan: immunization of humans and animals, and vector control. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 267: 139– 152.
63. Igarashi, A. 1992. Epidemiology and control of Japanese encephalitis. World Health Stat. Q. 45: 299– 305.
64. Ilkal, M. A.,, V. Dhanda,, B. U. Rao,, S. George,, A. C. Mishra,, Y. Prasanna,, S. Gopalkrishna,, and K. M. Pavri. 1988. Absence of viremia in cattle after experimental infection with Japanese encephalitis virus. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 82: 628– 631.
65. Jacobson, J. A.,, S. L. Hills,, J. L. Winkler,, M. Mammen,, B. Thaisomboonsuk,, A. A. Marfin,, and R. V. Gibbons. 2007. Evaluation of three immunoglobulin M antibody capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for diagnosis of Japanese encephalitis. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 77: 164– 168.
66. Johnson, A. J.,, A. J. Noga,, O. Kosoy,, R. S. Lanciotti,, A. A. Johnson,, and B. J. Biggerstaff. 2005. Duplex microsphere-based immunoassay for detection of anti-West Nile virus and anti-St. Louis encephalitis virus immunoglobulin M antibodies. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 12: 566– 574.
67. Joshi, D. D. 1995. Current status of Japanese encephalitis in Nepal. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 26 (Suppl. 3) : 34– 40.
68. Joshi, D. D. 1986. Japanese encephalitis in Nepal. JE HFRS Bull. 1: 5– 15.
69. Kalita, J.,, and U. K. Misra. 2000. Markedly severe dystonia in Japanese encephalitis. Mov. Disord. 15: 1168– 1172.
70. Kanamitsu, M.,, N. Hashimoto,, S. Urasawa,, M. Katsurada,, and H. Kimura. 1970. A field trial with an improved Japanese encephalitis vaccine in a nonendemic area of the disease. Biken J. 13: 313– 328.
71. Kanojia, P. C.,, P. S. Shetty,, and G. Geevarghese. 2003. A long-term study on vector abundance & seasonal prevalence in relation to the occurrence of Japanese encephalitis in Gorakhpur district, Uttar Pradesh. Indian J. Med. Res. 117: 104– 110.
72. Kari, K.,, W. Liu,, K. Gautama,, M. P. Mammen,, J. D. Clemens,, A. Nisalak,, K. Subrta,, H. K. Kim,, and Z.-Y. Xu. 2006. A hospital-based surveillance for Japanese encephalitis in Bali, Indonesia. BMC Med. 4: 8– 14.
73. Keiser, J.,, M. F. Maltese,, T. E. Erlanger,, R. Bos,, M. Tanner,, B. H. Singer,, and J. Utzinger. 2005. Effect of irrigated rise agriculture on Japanese encephalitis including challenges and opportunities for integrated vector management. Acta Trop. 95: 40– 57.
74. Khan, A. M.,, A. Q. Khan,, L. Dobrzynski,, G. P. Joshi,, and A. Myat. 1981. A Japanese encephalitis focus in Bangladesh. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 84: 41– 44.
75. Kodama, K.,, N. Sasaki,, and Y. K. Inoue. 1968. Studies of live attenuated Japanese encephalitis vaccine in swine. J. Immunol. 100: 194– 200.
76. Konno, J.,, K. Endo,, H. Agatsuma,, and N. Ishida. 1966. Cyclic outbreaks of Japanese encephalitis among pigs and humans. Am. J. Epidemiol. 84: 292– 300.
77. Kono, R.,, and K. H. Kim. 1969. Comparative epidemiological features of Japanese encephalitis in the Republic of Korea, China (Taiwan) and Japan. Bull. W. H. O. 40: 263– 277.
78. Kumar, R.,, P. Tripathi,, S. Singh,, and G. Bannerji. 2006. Clinical features in children hospitalized during the 2005 epidemic of Japanese encephalitis in Uttar Pradesh, India. Clin. Infect. Dis. 43: 123– 131.
79. Kumar, R.,, A. Mathur,, K. B. Singh,, P. Sitholey,, M. Prasad,, R. Shukla,, S. P. Agarwal,, and J. Arockiasamy. 1993. Clinical sequelae of Japanese encephalitis in children. Indian J. Med. Res. 97: 9– 13.
80. Kumar, R.,, A. Mathur,, A. Kumar,, S. Sharma,, S. Chakraborty,, and U. C. Chaturvedi. 1990. Clinical features & prognostic indicators of Japanese encephalitis in children in Lucknow (India). Indian J. Med. Res. 91: 321– 327.
81. Kuno, G.,, G.-J. J. Chang,, K. R. Tsuchiya,, N. Karabatsos,, and C. B. Cropp. 1998. Phylogeny of the genus Flavivirus. J. Virol. 72: 73– 83.
82. Kuwayama, M.,, M. Ito,, S. Takao,, Y. Shimazu,, S. Fukuda,, K. Miyazaki,, I. Kurane,, and T. Takasaki. 2005. Japanese encephalitis virus in meningitis patients, Japan. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 11: 471– 473.
83. Kuzuhara, S.,, H. Nakamuraa,, K. Hayashida,, J. Obata,, M. Abea,, K. Sonoda,, K. Nishiyama,, K. Sugawara,, K. Takeda,, T. Honda,, H. Matsui,, T. Shigaki,, Y. Kino,, H. Mizokamia,, M. Tanaka,, K. Mizunoa,, and K. Uedab. 2003. Non-clinical and phase I clinical trials of a Vero cell-derived inactivated Japanese encephalitis vaccine. Vaccine 21: 4519– 4526.
85. Libraty, D. H.,, A. Nisalak,, T. P. Endy,, S. Suntayakorn,, D. W. Vaughn,, and B. L. Innis. 2002. Clinical and immunological risk factors for severe disease in Japanese encephalitis. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 96: 173– 178.
86. Lincoln, A. F.,, and S. E. Sivertson. 1952. Acute phase of Japanese B encephalitis: two hundred and one cases in American soldiers, Korea, 1950. JAMA 150: 268– 273.
87. Liu, W.,, J. D. Clemens,, J.-Y. Yang,, and Z. Y. Xu. 2006. Immunization against Japanese encephalitis in China: a policy analysis. Vaccine 24: 5178– 5182.
88. Liu, Z.-L.,, S. Hennessy,, B. L. Strom,, T. F. Tsai,, C.-M. Wan,, S.-C. Tang,, C.-F. Xiang,, W. B. Bilker,, X.-P. Pan,, Y.-J. Yao,, Z.-W. Xu,, and S. B. Halstead. 1997. Short-term safety of live attenuated Japanese encephalitis vaccine (SA 14-14-2): results of a randomized trial with 26,239 subjects. J. Infect. Dis. 176: 1366– 1369.
89. Lowry, P. W.,, D. H. Truong,, L. D. Hinh,, J. L. Ladinsky,, N. Karabatsos,, C. B. Cropp,, D. Martin,, and D. J. Gubler. 1998. Japanese encephalitis among hospitalized pediatric and adult patients with acute encephalitis syndrome in Hanoi, Vietnam 1995. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 58: 324– 329.
90. Lyons, A.,, N. Kanesa-thasan,, R. A. Kuschner,, K. H. Eckels,, R. Putnak,, W. Sun,, R. Burge,, A. C. Towle,, P. Wilson,, E. Tauber,, and D. W. Vaughn. 2007. A phase 2 study of a purified, inactivated virus vaccine to prevent Japanese encephalitis. Vaccine 25: 3445– 3453.
91. Macdonald, W. B. G.,, A. R. Tink,, R. A. Ouvrier,, M. A. Menser,, L. M. de Silva,, H. Naim,, and R. A. Hawkes. Japanese encephalitis after a two week holiday in Bali. Med. J. Aust. 150: 334– 335.
92. Mackenzie, J. S.,, A. D. T. Barrett,, and V. Deubel. 2002. The Japanese encephalitis serological group of flaviviruses: a brief introduction to the group. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 267: 1– 10.
93. Marfin, A. A.,, R. S. Barwick Eidex,, P. E. Kozarsky,, and M. S. Cetron. 2005. Yellow fever and Japanese encephalitis vaccines: indications and complications. Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am. 19: 151– 168.
94. Marfin, A. A.,, and D. J. Gubler. 2005. Japanese encephalitis: the need for a more effective vaccine. Lancet 366: 1335– 1337.
95. Markoff, L. 2000. Points to consider in the development of a surrogate for efficacy of novel Japanese encephalitis vaccines. Vaccine 18: 26– 32.
96. Martin, D. A.,, B. J. Biggerstaff,, B. Allen,, A. J. Johnson,, R. S. Lanciotti,, and J. T. Roehrig. 2002. Use of immunoglobulin M cross-reactions in differential diagnosis of human flaviviral encephalitis infections in the United States. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 9: 544– 549.
97. Martin, D. A.,, D. A. Muth,, T. Brown,, A. J. Johnson,, N. Karabatsos,, and J. T. Roehrig. 2000. Standardization of immunoglobulin M capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for routine diagnosis of arboviral infections. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38: 1823– 1836.
98. Matsui, M.,, H. Kawano,, M. Matsukura,, Y. Otani,, and T. Miike. 2002. Acute transverse myelitis after Japanese B encephalitis vaccination in a 4-year-old girl. Brain Dev. 24: 187– 189.
99. Matsukura, M.,, M. Shimomura,, and H. Nunoi. 1980. A case of acute disseminating encephalomyelitis following vaccination against Japanese encephalitis. Brain Dev. 2: 323.
100. Misra, U. K.,, and J. Kalita. 2001. Seizures in Japanese encephalitis. J. Neurol. Sci. 190: 57– 60.
101. Misra, U. K.,, and J. Kalita. 1997. Anterior horn cells are also involved in Japanese encephalitis. Acta Neurol. Scand. 96: 114– 117.
102. Misra, U. K.,, and J. Kalita. 1997. Movement disorders in Japanese encephalitis. J. Neurol. 244: 299– 303.
103. Monath, T. P.,, F. Guirakhoo,, R. Nichols,, S. Yoksan,, R. Schrader,, C. Murphy,, P. Blum,, S. Woodward,, K. McCarthy,, D. Mathis,, C. Johnson,, and P. Bedford. 2003. Chimeric live, attenuated vaccine against Japanese encephalitis (ChimeriVax-JE): phase 2 clinical trials for safety and immunogenicity, effect of vaccine dose and schedule, and memory response to challenge with inactivated Japanese encephalitis antigen. J. Infect. Dis. 188: 1213– 1230.
104. Monath, T. P. 2002. Japanese encephalitis vaccines: current vaccines and future prospects. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 267: 105– 138.
105. Monath, T. P.,, K. McCarthy,, P. Bedford,, C. T. Johnson,, R. Nichols,, S. Yoksan,, R. Marchesani,, M. Knauber,, K. H. Wells,, J. Arroyo,, and F. Guirakhoo. 2002. Clinical proof of principle for ChimeriVax TM: recombinant live, attenuated vaccines against flavivirus infections. Vaccine 20: 1004– 1018.
106. Mudur, G. 2007. Indian researchers look into vaccine’s effectiveness as 300 die in encephalitis outbreak. BMJ 335: 961.
107. Murgod, U. A.,, U. B. Muthane,, V. Ravi,, S. Radhesh,, and A. Desai. 2001. Persistent movement disorders following Japanese encephalitis. Neurology 57: 2313– 2315.
108. Nazareth, B.,, J. Levin,, H. Johnson,, and N. Begg. 1994. Systemic allergic reactions to Japanese encephalitis vaccine. Vaccine 12: 666.
109. Nidaira, M.,, K. Taira,, K. Itokazu,, J. Kudaka,, M. Nakamura,, A. Ohno,, and T. Takasaki. 2002. Survey of antibody against Japanese encephalitis virus in Ryukyu wild boars (Sus scrofa riukiuanus) in Okinawa, Japan. Jpn. J. Infect. Dis. 60: 309– 311.
110. Oda, K.,, A. Igarashi,, C. T. Kheong,, C. C. Hong,, B. Vijayamalar,, M. Sinniah,, S. S. Hassan,, and H. Tanaka. 1996. Cross-sectional serosurvey for Japanese encephalitis specific antibody from animal sera in Malaysia 1993. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 27: 463– 470.
111. Ohrr, H.,, J. B. Tandan,, Y. M. Sohn,, S. H. Shin,, D. P. Pradhan,, and S. B. Halstead. 2005. Effect of single dose of SA 14-14-2 vaccine 1 year after immunisation in Nepalese children with Japanese encephalitis: a case-control study. Lancet 366: 1375– 1378.
112. Ohtaki, E.,, T. Matsuishi,, Y. Hirano,, and K. Maekawa. 1995. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis after treatment with Japanese B encephalitis vaccine (Nakayama-Yoken and Beijing strains). J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 59: 316– 317.
113. Ohtaki, E.,, Y. Murakami,, H. Komori,, Y. Yamashita,, and T. Matsuishi. 1992. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis after Japanese B encephalitis vaccination. Pediatr. Neurol. 8: 137– 139.
114. Okuno, T. 1978. An epidemiological review of Japanese encephalitis. World Health Stat. Q. 31: 120– 133.
115. Olson, J. G.,, T. G. Ksiazek,, R. Tan,, S. Atmosoedjono,, V. H. Lee,, and J. D. Converse. 1985. Correlation of population indices of female Culex tritaeniorhyncus with Japanese encephalitis viral activity in Kapuk, Indonesia. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 16: 337– 342.
116. Oya, A. 1988. Japanese encephalitis vaccine. Acta Pediatr. Jpn. 30: 175– 184.
117. Partridge, J.,, P. Ghimire,, T. Sedai,, M. B. Bista,, and M. Banerjee. 2007. Endemic Japanese encephalitis in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 77: 1146– 1149.
118. Paul, W. S.,, P. S. Moore,, N. Karabatsos,, S. P. Flood,, S. Yamada,, T. Jackson,, and T. F. Tsai. 1993. Outbreak of Japanese encephalitis on the island of Saipan, 1990. J. Infect. Dis. 167: 1053– 1058.
119. Peiris, J. S. M.,, F. P. Amerasinghe,, C. K. Arunagiri,, L. P. Perera,, S. H. P. P. Karunaratne,, C. B. Ratanyake,, T. A. Kulatilaka,, and M. R. N. Abeysinghe. 1993. Japanese encephalitis in Sri Lanka: comparison of vector and virus ecology in different agro-climatic areas. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 87: 541– 548.
120. Peiris, J. S. M.,, F. P. Amerasinghe,, P. H. Amerasinghe,, C. B. Ratanyake,, S. H. P. P. Karunaratne,, and T. F. Tsai. 1992. Japanese encephalitis in Sri Lanka—the study of an epidemic: vector incrimination, porcine infection and human disease. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 86: 307– 313.
121. Pieper, S. J. L.,, and L. T. Kurland. 1958. Sequelae of Japanese B and mumps encephalitis. Recent follow-up of patients affected in 1947–1948 epidemic on Guam. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 7: 481– 490.
122. Plesner, A. M. 2003. Allergic reactions to Japanese encephalitis vaccine. Immunol. Allergy Clin. North Am. 23: 665– 697.
123. Plesner, A.,, T. Ronne,, and H. Wachmann. 2000. Case-control study of allergic reactions to Japanese encephalitis vaccine. Vaccine 18: 1830– 1836.
124. Plesner, A. M.,, P. Arlien-Soborg,, and M. Herning. 1998. Neurological complications to vaccination against Japanese encephalitis. Eur. J. Neurol. 5: 479– 485.
125. Plesner, A. M.,, and T. Ronne. 1997. Allergic mucocutaneous reactions to Japanese encephalitis vaccine. Vaccine 15: 1239– 1243.
126. Poland, J. D.,, C. B. Cropp,, R. B. Craven,, and T. P. Monath. 1990. Evaluation of the potency and safety of inactivated Japanese encephalitis vaccine in U.S. inhabitants. J. Infect. Dis. 161: 878– 882.
127. Poneprasert, B. 1989. Japanese encephalitis in children in northern Thailand. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 20: 599– 603.
128. Potula, R.,, S. Badrinath,, and S. Srinivasan. 2003. Japanese encephalitis in and around Pondi-cherry, South India: a clinical appraisal and prognostic indicators for the outcome. J. Trop. Pediatr. 49: 48– 53.
129. Prince, H. E.,, L. H. Tobler,, M. Lape-Nixon,, G. A. Foster,, S. L. Stramer,, and M. P. Busch. 2005. Development and persistence of West Nile virus-specific immunoglobulin M (IgM), IgA, and IgG in viremic donors. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43: 4316– 4320.
130. Prince, H. E.,, L. H. Tobler,, C. Yeh,, N. Gefter,, B. Custer,, and M. P. Busch. 2007. Persistence of West Nile virus-specific antibodies in viremic donors. Clin. Vaccine Immunol. 14: 1228– 1230.
131. Rayamajhi, A.,, R. Singh,, R. Prasad,, B. Khanal,, and S. Singhi. 2006. Clinico-laboratory profile and outcome of Japanese encephalitis in Nepali children. Ann. Trop. Paediatr. 26: 293– 301.
132. Reisen, W. K.,, M. Aslamkahn,, and R. G. Basio. 1976. The effects of climatic patterns and agricultural practices on the population dynamics of Culex tritaeniorhyncus in Asia. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 7: 61– 71.
133. Richter, R. W.,, and S. Shimojyo. 1961. Neurologic sequelae of Japanese B encephalitis. Neurology 11: 553– 559.
134. Roberson, J. A.,, W. D. Crill,, and G.-J. J. Chang. 2007. Differentiation of West Nile and St. Louis encephalitis virus infections by use of noninfectious virus-like particles with reduced cross-reactivity. J. Clin. Microbiol. 45: 3167– 3174.
135. Roehrig, J. T.,, D. Nash,, B. Maldin,, A. Labowitz,, D. A. Martin,, R. S. Lanciotti,, and G. L. Campbell. 2003. Persistence of virus-reactive serum immunoglobulin M antibody in confirmed West Nile virus encephalitis cases. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 9: 376– 379.
136. Rosen, L. 1986. The natural history of Japanese encephalitis virus. Ann. Rev. Microbiol. 40: 395– 414.
137. Ruff, T. A.,, D. Eisen,, A. Fuller,, and R. Kass. 1995. Adverse reactions to Japanese encephalitis vaccine. J. Travel Med. 2: 159– 164.
138. Sakaguchi, M.,, H. Miyazawa,, and S. Inouye. 2001. Specific IgE and IgG to gelatin in children with systemic cutaneous reactions to Japanese encephalitis vaccines. Allergy 56: 536– 539.
139. Sakaguchi, M.,, K. Nakashima,, H. Takahashi,, T. Nakayama,, H. Fujita,, and S. Inouye. 2001. Anaphylaxis to Japanese encephalitis vaccine. Allergy 56: 804– 805.
140. Sakaguchi, M.,, and S. Inouye. 1998. Two patterns of systemic immediate-type reactions to Japanese encephalitis vaccines. Vaccine 16: 68– 69.
141. Sakaguchi, M.,, M. Yoshida,, W. Kuroda,, O. Harayama,, Y. Matsunaga,, and S. Inouye. 1997. Systemic immediate-type reactions to gelatin included in Japanese encephalitis vaccines. Vaccine 15: 121– 122.
142. Sanchez, J. L.,, C. H. Hoke,, J. McCowan,, R. F. Defraites,, E. T. Takafuji,, B. M. Diniega,, and L. W. Pang. 1990. Further experience with Japanese encephalitis vaccine. Lancet 335: 972– 973.
143. Scherer, W. F.,, J. T. Moyer,, T. Izumi,, I. Gresser,, and J. McCown. 1959. Ecologic studies of Japanese encephalitis virus in Japan. VI. Swine infection. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 8: 698– 706.
144. Scherer, W. F.,, M. Kitaoka,, T. Okuno,, and T. Ogata. 1959. Ecologic studies of Japanese encephalitis virus in Japan. VII. Human infection. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 8: 707– 715.
145. Schneider, R. J.,, M. H. Firestone,, R. Edelman,, P. Chieowanich,, and R. Pornpibul. 1974. Clinical sequelae after Japanese encephalitis: a one year follow-up study in Thailand. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 5: 560– 568.
146. Shlim, D. R.,, and T. Solomon. 2002. Japanese encephalitis vaccine for travelers: exploring the limits of risk. Clin. Infect. Dis. 35: 183– 188.
147. Simpson, D. I. H.,, C. E. G. Smith,, T. F. C. Marshall,, G. S. Platt,, H. J. Way,, E. T. W. Bowen,, W. F. Bright,, J. Day,, D. A. McMahon,, M. N. Hill,, P. J. E. Bendell,, and O. H. U. Heathcote. 1976. Arbovirus infections in Sarawak: the role of the domestic pig. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 70: 66– 72.
148. Simpson, D. I. H.,, E. T. W. Bowen,, H. J. Way,, G. S. Platt,, M. N. Hill,, S. Kamath,, L. T. Wah,, P. J. E. Bendell,, and O. H. U. Heathcote. 1974. Arbovirus infections in Sarawak, October 1968–February 1970: Japanese encephalitis virus isolation from mosquitoes. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 68: 393– 404.
149. Simpson, T. W.,, and G. Meiklejohn. 1947. Sequelae of Japanese B encephalitis. Am. J. Trop. Med. 27: 727– 731.
150. Siraprapasiri, T.,, W. Sawaddiwudhipong,, and S. Rojanasuphot. 1997. Cost benefit analysis of Japanese encephalitis vaccination program in Thailand. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 28: 143– 148.
151. Sohn, Y. M. 2000. Japanese encephalitis immunization in Korea: past, present and future. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 6: 17– 24.
152. Sohn, Y. M.,, M. S. Parka,, H. O. Rhoa,, L. J. Chandler,, R. E. Shope,, and T. F. Tsai. 1999. Primary and booster immune responses to SA 14-14-2 Japanese encephalitis vaccine in Korean infants. Vaccine 17: 2259– 2264.
153. Solomon, T.,, T. T. Thao,, P. Lewthwaite,, M. H. Ooi,, R. Kneen,, N. M. Dung,, and N. J. White. 2008. A cohort study to assess the new WHO Japanese encephalitis surveillance standards. Bull. W. H. O. 86: 178– 186.
154. Solomon, T.,, K. Koelemay,, A. Marfin,, C. Roth,, J. Jacobson,, M. How Ooi,, N. Rao,, A. Sabchareon,, P. Namgyal,, S. Hills,, R. Kneen,, J. Hombach,, A. Dabbagh,, and S. Sivalenka. 2005. Japanese encephalitis clinical care guidelines: Guidelines for management of children presenting with symptoms or signs of acute encephalitis syndrome. http://www.path.org/vaccineresources/japanese_encephalitis-training.php.
155. Solomon, T.,, N. M. Dung,, B. Wills,, R. Kneen,, M. Gainsborough,, T. V. Diet,, T. T. N. Thuy,, H. T. Loan,, V. C. Khanh,, D. W. Vaughn,, N. J. White,, and J. J. Farrar. 2003. Interferon alfa-2a in Japanese encephalitis: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 361: 821– 826.
156. Solomon, T.,, and D. W. Vaughn. 2002. Pathogenesis and clinical features of Japanese encephalitis and West Nile virus infections. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 267: 171– 194.
157. Solomon, T.,, N. M. Dung,, R. Kneen,, L. T. T. Thao,, M. Gainsborough,, A. Nisalak,, N. P. J. Day,, F. J. Kirkham,, D. W. Vaughn,, S. Smith,, and N. J. White. 2002. Seizures and raised intracranial pressure in Vietnamese patients with Japanese encephalitis. Brain 125: 1084– 1093.
158. Solomon, T.,, R. Kneen,, N. M. Dung,, V. C. Khanh,, T. T. N. Thuy,, D. Q. Ha,, N. P. J. Day,, A. Nisalak,, D. W. Vaughn,, and N. J. White. 1998. Poliomyelitis-like illness due to Japanese encephalitis virus. Lancet 351: 1094– 1097.
159. Srey, V. H.,, H. Sadones,, S. Ong,, M. Mam,, C. Yim,, S. Sor,, P. Grosjean,, and J.-M. Reynes. 2002. Etiology of encephalitis syndrome among hospitalized children and adults in Takeo, Cambodia, 1999–2000. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 66: 200– 207.
160. Sugawara, K.,, K. Nishiyama,, Y. Ishikawa,, M. Abe,, K. Sonoda,, K. Komatsu,, Y. Horikawa,, K. Takeda,, T. Honda,, S. Kuzuhara,, Y. Kino,, H. Mizokami,, K. Mizuno,, T. Oka,, and K. Honda. 2002. Development of Vero cell-derived inactivated Japanese encephalitis vaccine. Biologicals 30: 303– 314.
161. Suraratdecha, C.,, C. Levin,, J. Jacobson,, and M. LaForce. 2007. Demand-driven and affordable next generation vaccines for preventing Japanese encephalitis in Asia and meningococcal meningitis in sub-Saharan Africa, abstr. M104. Progr. Int. Health Econ. Assoc. 6th World Congr., Copenhagen, Denmark, July 2007.
162. Suraratdecha, C.,, J. Jacobson,, S. Sivalenka,, and D. Narahari. 2006. A cost-effectiveness analysis of strategies for controlling Japanese encephalitis in Andhra Pradesh, India. J. Pharm. Finance Econ. Policy 15: 21– 40.
163. Takahashi, H.,, V. Pool,, T. Tsai,, R. T. Chen, et al. 2000. Adverse events after Japanese encephalitis vaccination: review of post-marketing surveillance data from Japan and the United States. Vaccine 18: 2963– 2969.
164. Takaku, K.,, T. Yamashita,, T. Osanai,, I. Yoshida,, M. Kato,, H. Goda,, M. Takagi,, T. Hirota,, T. Amano,, K. Fukai,, N. Kunita,, K. Inoue,, K. Shoji,, A. Igarashi,, and T. Ito. 1968. Japanese encephalitis purified vaccine. Biken J. 11: 25– 39.
165. Tam, N. H.,, and N. T. Yen. 1995. Japanese encephalitis in Vietnam 1985–93. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 26 (Suppl. 3) : 47– 50.
166. Tandan, J. B.,, H. Ohrr,, Y. M. Sohn,, S. Yoksan,, M. Ji,, C. M. Nam,, and S. B. Halstead. 2007. Single dose of SA 14-14-2 vaccine provides long-term protection against Japanese encephalitis: a case-control study in Nepalese children 5 years after immunization. Vaccine 25: 5041– 5045.
167. Tauber, E.,, H. Kollaritsch,, F. von Sonnenburg,, M. Lademann,, B. Jilma,, C. Firbas,, T. Jelinek,, C. G. Beckett,, J. Knobloch,, W. J. H. McBride,, E. Schuller,, A. Kaltenböck,, W. Sun,, and A. Lyons. Randomized, double blind, placebo controlled phase 3 trial on the safety and tolerability of an inactivated Japanese encephalitis vaccine. J. Infect. Dis., in press.
168. Tauber, E.,, H. Kollaritsch,, M. Korinek,, P. Rendi-Wagner,, B. Jilma,, C. Firbas,, S. Schranz,, E. Jong,, A. Klingler,, S. Dewasthaly,, and C. S. Klade. 2007. Safety and immunogenicity of a Vero-cell-derived, inactivated Japanese encephalitis vaccine: a non-inferiority, phase III, randomised controlled trial. Lancet 370: 1847– 1853.
169. Tilley, P. A. G.,, J. D. Fox,, G. C. Jayaraman,, and J. K. Preiksaitis. 2006. Nucleic acid testing for West Nile virus RNA in plasma enhances rapid diagnosis of acute infection in symptomatic patients. J. Infect. Dis. 193: 1361– 1364.
170. Ting, S. H. L.,, H. C. Tan,, W. K. Wong,, M. L. Ng,, S. H. Chan,, and E. E. Ooi. 2004. Seroepidemiology of neutralizing antibodies to Japanese encephalitis in Singapore: continued transmission despite abolishment of pig farming? Acta Trop. 92: 187– 191.
171. Tsai, T. F. 2000. New initiatives for the control of Japanese encephalitis by vaccination: minutes of a WHO/CVI meeting, Bangkok, Thailand, 13–15 October 1998. Vaccine 18: 1– 25.
172. Tsai, T. F.,, Y. Yong-Xin,, J. L. Li,, R. Putvatana,, Z. Ran,, W. Shougui,, and S. B. Halstead. 1998. Immunogenicity of live attenuated SA 14-14-2 Japanese encephalitis vaccine—a comparison of 1-and 3-month immunization schedules. J. Infect. Dis. 177: 221– 223.
173. Ueba, N.,, A. Maeda,, K. Otsu,, B. Mitsuda,, T. Kimoto,, S. Fujito,, and N. Kunita. 1972. Natural infection of swine by Japanese encephalitis virus and its modification by vaccination. Biken J. 15: 67– 79.
174. Umenai, T.,, R. Krzysko,, T. A. Bektimirov,, and F. A. Assaad. 1985. Japanese encephalitis: current worldwide status. Bull. W. H. O. 63: 625– 631.
175. Vaughn, D. W.,, and C. H. Hoke. 1992. The epidemiology of Japanese encephalitis: prospects for prevention. Epidemiol. Rev. 14: 197– 221.
176. Vitarana, T. 1995. Japanese encephalitis in Sri Lanka. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 26: 41– 42.
177. Wang, L.-H.,, S.-H. Fu,, H.-Y. Wang,, X.-F. Liang,, J.-X. Cheng,, H.-M. Jing,, G.-L. Cai,, X.-W. Li,, W.-Y. Ze,, X.-J. Lv,, H.-Q. Wang,, D.-L. Zhang,, Y. Feng,, Z.-D. Yin,, X.-H. Sun,, T.-J. Shui,, M.-H. Li,, Y.-X. Li,, and G.-D. Liang. 2007. Japanese encephalitis outbreak, Yuncheng, China, 2006. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 13: 1123– 1124.
178. Watt, G.,, and K. Jongsakul. 2003. Acute undifferentiated fever caused by infections with Japanese encephalitis virus. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 68: 704– 706.
179. Wenxin, M.,, Y. Yongxin,, W. Shougui,, Z. Benli,, M. Yunhong,, F. Shuying,, C. Pinquan,, H. Qufei,, Z. Guoming,, and G. Yupeng. 1993. A large-scale study on the safety and serological efficacy of live attenuated Japanese encephalitis vaccine. Chin. J. Biol. 6 (4) : 1– 4.
180. WHO. 2008. Safety of live 14-14-2 Japanese encephalitis vaccine. Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec. 83: 37– 44.
181. WHO. 2007. Third Biregional Meeting on Control of Japanese Encephalitis: Meeting Report. http://www.wpro.who.int/NR/rdonlyres/50129D1D-E9B3-4707-A62E-0A541DBC3032/0/MTGRPT.JEBireg3.pdf.
182. WHO. 2007. Manual for Laboratory Diagnosis of Japanese Encephalitis Virus Infection. http://www.who.int/immunization_monitoring/Manual_lab_diagnosis_JE.pdf.
183. WHO. 2006. Japanese encephalitis surveillance standards. http://www.path.org/files/WHO_surveillance_standards_JE.pdf.
184. WHO. 2006. Japanese encephalitis vaccines. Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec. 81 (34/35) : 331– 340.
185. WHO. 2005. Global Advisory Committee on Vaccine Safety, 9–10 June 2005. Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec. 80 (28) : 242– 243.
186. Wittesjo, B.,, R. Eitrem,, B. Niklasson,, S. Vene,, and J. A. Mangiafico. 1995. Japanese encephalitis after a 10-day holiday in Bali. Lancet 345: 856.
187. Wong, S. J.,, V. L. Demarest,, R. H. Boyle,, T. Wang,, M. Ledizet,, K. Kar,, L. D. Kramer,, E. Fikrig,, and R. A. Koski. 2004. Detection of human anti-flavivirus antibodies with a West Nile virus recombinant antigen microsphere immunoassay. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42: 65– 72.
188. Wong, S. J.,, R. H. Boyle,, V. L. Demarest,, A. N. Woodmansee,, L. D. Kramer,, H. Li,, M. Drebot,, R. A. Koski,, E. Fikrig,, D. A. Martin,, and P.-Y. Shi. 2003. Immunoassay targeting nonstructural protein 5 to differentiate West Nile virus infection from dengue and St. Louis encephalitis virus infections and from flavivirus vaccination. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41: 4217– 4223.
189. Wu, Y.-C.,, Y.-S. Huang,, L.-J. Chien,, T.-L. Lin,, Y.-Y. Yueh,, W.-L. Tseng,, K.-J. Chang,, and G.-R. Wang. 1999. The epidemiology of Japanese encephalitis on Taiwan during 1966–1997. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 61: 78– 84.
190. Xin, Y. Y.,, Z. G. Ming,, G. Y. Pen,, A. Jian,, and L. H. Min. 1988. Safety of a live-attenuated Japanese encephalitis virus vaccine (SA 14-14-2) for children. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 39: 214– 217.
191. Xu, Y.,, G. Zhaori,, S. Vene,, K. Shen,, Y. Zhou,, L. Magnius,, B. Wahren,, and A. Linde. 1996. Viral etiology of acute childhood encephalitis in Beijing diagnosed by analysis of single samples. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 15: 1018– 1024.
192. Yamada, T.,, S. Rojanasuphot,, M. Takagi,, S. Wungkobkiat,, T. Hirota,, T. Yamashita,, S. Ahandarik,, S. Pisuthipornkul,, S. Sawasdikosol,, N. Sangkawibha,, and P. Tuchinda. 1971. Studies on an epidemic of Japanese encephalitis in the northern region of Thailand in 1969 and 1970. Biken J. 14: 267– 296.
193. Yang, D. K.,, C. H. Kweon,, B. H. Kim,, I. J. Hwang,, M. I. Kang,, B. J. So,, and K. O. Cho. 2007. The seroprevalence of Japanese encephalitis virus in goats raised in Korea. J. Vet. Sci. 8: 197– 199.
194. Yongxin, Y. 1995. Japanese encephalitis in China. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 26 (Suppl. 3) : 17– 21.

Tables

Japanese Encephalitis Prevention and Control: Advances, Challenges, and New Initiatives
[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-1,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-1,properties={foaf_givenname=Marc, foaf_name=Marc Fischer, foaf_surname=Fischer, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-aff1]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-2,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-2,properties={foaf_givenname=Susan, foaf_name=Susan Hills, foaf_surname=Hills, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-aff2]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-3,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-3,properties={foaf_givenname=Erin, foaf_name=Erin Staples, foaf_surname=Staples, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-aff3]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-4,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-4,properties={foaf_givenname=Barbara, foaf_name=Barbara Johnson, foaf_surname=Johnson, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-aff4]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-5,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-5,properties={foaf_givenname=Mansour, foaf_name=Mansour Yaich, foaf_surname=Yaich, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-aff5]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-6,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-6,properties={foaf_givenname=Tom, foaf_name=Tom Solomon, foaf_surname=Solomon, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06-aff6]]}]]
Citation: Fischer M, Hills S, Staples E, Johnson B, Yaich M, Solomon T. 2008. Japanese Encephalitis Prevention and Control: Advances, Challenges, and New Initiatives, p 93-124. In Scheld W, Hammer S, Hughes J (ed), Emerging Infections 8. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815592.ch6
/content/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06.ch06tab01
Table 1.
Laboratory diagnostic assays to support JE surveillance
Generic image for table
Table 1.

Laboratory diagnostic assays to support JE surveillance

Citation: Fischer M, Hills S, Staples E, Johnson B, Yaich M, Solomon T. 2008. Japanese Encephalitis Prevention and Control: Advances, Challenges, and New Initiatives, p 93-124. In Scheld W, Hammer S, Hughes J (ed), Emerging Infections 8. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815592.ch6
/content/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06.ch06tab02
Table 2.
JE vaccines that are currently available or in clinical trials
Generic image for table
Table 2.

JE vaccines that are currently available or in clinical trials

Citation: Fischer M, Hills S, Staples E, Johnson B, Yaich M, Solomon T. 2008. Japanese Encephalitis Prevention and Control: Advances, Challenges, and New Initiatives, p 93-124. In Scheld W, Hammer S, Hughes J (ed), Emerging Infections 8. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815592.ch6
/content/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06.ch06tab03
Table 3.
Challenges and initiatives to improve JE surveillance, diagnosis, prevention, and management
Generic image for table
Table 3.

Challenges and initiatives to improve JE surveillance, diagnosis, prevention, and management

Citation: Fischer M, Hills S, Staples E, Johnson B, Yaich M, Solomon T. 2008. Japanese Encephalitis Prevention and Control: Advances, Challenges, and New Initiatives, p 93-124. In Scheld W, Hammer S, Hughes J (ed), Emerging Infections 8. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815592.ch6
/content/10.1128/9781555815592.ch06.ch06tab04
Table 4.
Status of JE vaccination programs in Asian countries where it is endemic
Generic image for table
Table 4.

Status of JE vaccination programs in Asian countries where it is endemic

Citation: Fischer M, Hills S, Staples E, Johnson B, Yaich M, Solomon T. 2008. Japanese Encephalitis Prevention and Control: Advances, Challenges, and New Initiatives, p 93-124. In Scheld W, Hammer S, Hughes J (ed), Emerging Infections 8. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815592.ch6

Back to top
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Please check the format of the address you have entered.
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error