1887

Chapter 12 : The Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance

Authors: Dean Rowe-Magnus1, Didier Mazel2
VIEW AFFILIATIONS HIDE AFFILIATIONS
Affiliations: 1: Department of Microbiology, Clinical Integrative Biology Division, Sunnybrook & Women’s College Health Sciences Centre, 2075 Bayview Ave., S1-26A, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M4N 3N5; 2: Unité Plasticité du Génome Bactérien, Institut Pasteur, 25 rue du Dr. Roux, 75724 Paris cedex 15, France
Content Type: Monograph
Publication Year: 2006

Category: Bacterial Pathogenesis; Microbial Genetics and Molecular Biology

MyBook is a cheap paperback edition of the original book and will be sold at uniform, low price.

Preview this chapter:
Preview Magnify
Zoom in
Zoomout

The Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance, Page 1 of 2

| /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555815622/9781555813000_Chap12-1.gif /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555815622/9781555813000_Chap12-2.gif

Abstract:

The discovery of antibiotics in the 1930s and their development for the treatment of infectious diseases represented a major advancement for medicine. There are several distinct biochemical mechanisms such as reduced permeability, active efflux and alteration of the drug target by which antibiotic resistance can arise, and these are discussed in the chapter. Although isoniazid (isonicotinic acid hydrazide, INH) is still one of the most effective antibiotics against tuberculosis, the number of INH- and other drug-resistant strains has increased dramatically. The evolution of resistance by mutation of an endogenous gene is more the exception than the rule, since the genetic basis of most antibiotic resistance among clinically significant bacteria is horizontal transfer. Although the incidence of mutator strains in environmental microbes and their possible roles in the tailoring of antibiotic resistance genes (or any horizontally transferred determinants, such as biodegradation clusters) is difficult to examine systematically in natural populations, their importance in the evolution of resistance should not be underestimated. There are three main mechanisms of horizontal gene transfer: transduction, transformation and conjugation. Conjugative DNA transfer is the principal mechanism for the dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes. Conjugative transposons are discrete elements that are normally integrated into a bacterial genome. The common association of multiresistant integrons (MRIs) with mobile DNA elements facilitates the transit of the resistance genes that have been amassed by integrons across phylogenetic boundaries and augments the impact of integrons on bacterial evolution.

Citation: Rowe-Magnus D, Mazel D. 2006. The Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance, p 221-241. In Seifert H, DiRita V (ed), Evolution of Microbial Pathogens. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815622.ch12

Key Concept Ranking

Mobile Genetic Elements
0.4875176
0.4875176
Highlighted Text: Show | Hide
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

Figures

The Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance
[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555815622.ch12-1,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555815622.ch12-1,properties={foaf_givenname=Dean, foaf_name=Dean Rowe-Magnus, foaf_surname=Rowe-Magnus, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555815622.ch12-aff1]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555815622.ch12-2,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555815622.ch12-2,properties={foaf_givenname=Didier, foaf_name=Didier Mazel, foaf_surname=Mazel, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555815622.ch12-aff2]]}]]
Citation: Rowe-Magnus D, Mazel D. 2006. The Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance, p 221-241. In Seifert H, DiRita V (ed), Evolution of Microbial Pathogens. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815622.ch12
/content/10.1128/9781555815622.ch12.ch12fig01
FIGURE 1
Production of antibiotics in Japan and isolation frequency of antibiotic-resistant strains. TC, tetracycline; CM, chloramphenicol; SM, streptomycin.
10.1128/9781555815622/f0222-01_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815622/f0222-01.gif
Image of FIGURE 1
FIGURE 1

Production of antibiotics in Japan and isolation frequency of antibiotic-resistant strains. TC, tetracycline; CM, chloramphenicol; SM, streptomycin.

Citation: Rowe-Magnus D, Mazel D. 2006. The Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance, p 221-241. In Seifert H, DiRita V (ed), Evolution of Microbial Pathogens. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815622.ch12
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555815622.ch12.ch12fig02
FIGURE 2
The cluster of antibiotic-resistant enterococci compared with related clusters identified in glycopeptide-producing actinomycetes. The numbers between the clusters indicate percent amino acid identity to the cluster.
10.1128/9781555815622/f0226-01_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815622/f0226-01.gif
Image of FIGURE 2
FIGURE 2

The cluster of antibiotic-resistant enterococci compared with related clusters identified in glycopeptide-producing actinomycetes. The numbers between the clusters indicate percent amino acid identity to the cluster.

Citation: Rowe-Magnus D, Mazel D. 2006. The Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance, p 221-241. In Seifert H, DiRita V (ed), Evolution of Microbial Pathogens. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815622.ch12
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555815622.ch12.ch12fig03
FIGURE 3
Structural comparison of a “classical” multidrug-resistant integron and the N16961 superintegron. (Top) Schematic representation of In; the various resistance genes are associated with different sites (see text). Antibiotic resistance cassettes confer resistance to the following compounds: , aminoglycosides; , chloramphenicol; , quarternary ammonium compounds; , -lactams. The gene, which provides resistance to sulfonamides, is not a gene cassette. (Bottom) The ORFs are separated by highly homologous sequences, the VCRs.
10.1128/9781555815622/f0237-01_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815622/f0237-01.gif
Image of FIGURE 3
FIGURE 3

Structural comparison of a “classical” multidrug-resistant integron and the N16961 superintegron. (Top) Schematic representation of In; the various resistance genes are associated with different sites (see text). Antibiotic resistance cassettes confer resistance to the following compounds: , aminoglycosides; , chloramphenicol; , quarternary ammonium compounds; , -lactams. The gene, which provides resistance to sulfonamides, is not a gene cassette. (Bottom) The ORFs are separated by highly homologous sequences, the VCRs.

Citation: Rowe-Magnus D, Mazel D. 2006. The Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance, p 221-241. In Seifert H, DiRita V (ed), Evolution of Microbial Pathogens. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815622.ch12
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint

References

/content/book/10.1128/9781555815622.ch12
1. Ainsa, J. A.,, C. Martin,, B. Gicquel, and, R. Gomez-Lus. 1996. Characterization of the chromosomal aminoglycoside 2’-N-acetyltransferase gene from Mycobacterium fortuitum. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 40: 2350–2355.
2. Ainsa, J. A., E. Perez,, V. Pelicic,, F. X. Berthet,, B. Gicquel, and, C. Martin. 1997. Aminoglycoside 2’-N-acetyltransferase genes are universally present in mycobacteria: characterization of the aac(2’)-Ic gene from Mycobacterium tuberculosis and the aac(2’)-Id gene from Mycobacterium smegmatis. Mol. Microbiol. 24: 431–441.
3. Akido, T., K. Koyama,, Y. Ishiki,, S. Kimura, and, T. Fukushima. 1960. On the mechanism of the development of multiple-drug-resistant clones of Shigella. Jpn. J. Microbiol. 4: 219–227.
4. Berg, D. E., J. Davies,, B. Allet, and, J. D. Rochaix. 1975. Transposition of R factor genes to bacteriophage lambda. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 72:3628–3632.
5. Bjorkman, J., D. Hughes, and, D. I. Andersson. 1998. Virulence of antibioticresistant Salmonella typhimurium. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:3949–3953.
6. Bowler, L. D.,, Q. Y. Zhang,, J. Y. Riou, and, B. G. Spratt. 1994. Interspecies recombination between the penA genes of Neisseria meningitidis and commensal Neisseria species during the emergence of penicillin resistance in N. meningitidis: natural events and laboratory simulation. J. Bacteriol. 176:333–337.
7. Brown, J. R.,, J. Z. Zhang, and, J. E. Hodgson. 1998. A bacterial antibiotic resistance gene with eukaryotic origins. Curr. Biol. 8:R365–R367.
8. Burrus, V., G. Pavlovic,, B. Decaris, and, G. Guedon. 2002. Conjugative transposons: the tip of the iceberg. Mol. Microbiol. 46:601–610.
9. Bush, K., G. Jacoby, and, A. Medeiros. 1995. A functional classification scheme for beta-lactamases and its correlation with molecular structure. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 39:1211–1233.
10. Choury, D., G. Aubert,, M. F. Szajnert,, K. Azibi,, M. Delpech, and, G. Paul. 1999. Characterization and nucleotide sequence of CARB-6, a new carbenicillin-hydrolyzing beta-lactamase from Vibrio cholerae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 43:297–301.
11. Clewell, D. B., and, K. E. Weaver. 1989. Sex pheromones and plasmid transfer in Enterococcus faecalis. Plasmid 21:175–184.
12. Daigle, D. M.,, G. A. McKay,, P. R. Thompson, and, G. D. Wright. 1999. Aminoglycoside antibiotic phosphotransferases are also serine protein kinases. Chem. Biol. 6:11–18.
13. Datta, N.,, R. W. Hedges,, E. J. Shaw,, R. B. Sykes, and, M. H. Richmond. 1971. Properties of an R factor from Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J. Bacteriol. 108:1244–1249.
14. Datta,, N., and, V. Hughes. 1983. Plasmids of the same Inc groups in Enterobacteria before and after the medical use of antibiotics. Nature 306:616–617.
15. Denamur, E., G. Lecointre,, P. Darlu,, O. Tenaillon,, C. Acquaviva,, I. Matic. 2000. Evolutionary implications of the frequent horizontal transfer of mismatch repair genes. Cell 103:711–721.
16. Dowson, C. G.,, T. J. Coffey,, C. Kell, and, R. A. Whiley. 1993. Evolution of penicillin resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae; the role of Streptococcus mitis in the formation of a low affinity PBP2B in S. pneumoniae. Mol. Microbiol. 9:635–643.
17. Dowson, C. G.,, T. J. Coffey, and, B. G. Spratt. 1994. Origin and molecular epidemiology of penicillin-binding-protein-mediated resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics. Trends Microbiol. 2:361–366.
18. Dowson, C. G., A. Hutchison,, J. A. Brannigan,, R. C. George,, D. Hansman,, J. Linares,, A. Tomasz,, J. M. Smith, and, B. G. Spratt. 1989. Horizontal transfer of penicillinbinding protein genes in penicillin-resistant clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:8842–8846.
19. Dracobly, A. 2004. Theoretical change and therapeutic innovation in the treatment of syphilis in mid-nineteenth-century France. J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci. 59:522–554.
20. Dunny, G. M.,, M. H. Antiporta, and, H. Hirt. 001. Peptide pheromone-induced transfer of plasmid pCF10 in Enterococcus faecalis: probing the genetic and molecular basis for specificity of the pheromone response. Peptides 22:1529–1539.
21. Essa, A. M.,, D. J. Julian,, S. P. Kidd,, N. L. Brown, and, J. L. Hobman. 2003. Mercury resistance determinants related to Tn21, Tn1696, and Tn5053 in enterobacteria from the preantibiotic era. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47:1115–1119.
22. Fermer, C.,, B. E. Kristiansen,, O. Skold, and, G. Swedberg. 1995. Sulfonamide resistance in Neisseria meningitidis as defined by site-directed mutagenesis could have its origin in other species. J. Bacteriol. 177:4669–4675.
23. Flannagan, S. E., and, D. B. Clewell. 1991. Conjugative transfer of Tn916 in Enterococcus faecalis: trans activation of homologous transposons. J. Bacteriol. 173:7136–7141.
24. Flensburg, J., and, O. Skold. 1987. Massive overproduction of dihydrofolate reductase in bacteria as a response to the use of trimethoprim. Eur. J. Biochem. 162:473–476.
25. Fournier, B., A. Gravel,, D. C. Hooper, and, P. H. Roy. 1999. Strength and regulation of the different promoters for chromosomal beta-lactamases of Klebsiella oxytoca. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 43:850–855.
26. Galimand, M., G. Gerbaud,, M. Guibourdenche,, J. Y. Riou, and, P. Courvalin. 1998. High-level chloramphenicol resistance in Neisseria meningitidis. N. Engl. J. Med. 339:868–874.
27. Hedges, R. W., and, A. E. Jacob. 1974. Transposition of ampicillin resistance from RP4 to other replicons. Mol. Gen. Genet. 132:31–40.
28. Heidelberg, J. F.,, J. A. Eisen,, W. C. Nelson,, R. A. Clayton,, M. L. Gwinn,, R. J. Dodson,, D. H. Haft,, E. K. Hickey,, J. D. Peterson,, L. Umayam,, S. R. Gill,, K. E. Nelson,, T. D. Read,, H. Tettelin,, D. Richardson,, M. D. Ermolaeva,, J. Vamathevan,, S. Bass,, H. Qin,, I. Dragoi,, P. Sellers,, L. McDonald,, T. Utterback,, R. D. Fleishmann,, W. C. Nierman,, O. White,, S. L. Salzberg,, H. O. Smith,, R. R. Colwell,, J. J. Mekalanos,, J. C. Venter, and, C. M. Fraser. 2000. DNA sequence of both chromosomes of the cholera pathogen Vibrio cholerae. Nature 406:477–483.
29. Ippen-Ihler, K. A., and, E. G. Minkley, Jr. 1986. The conjugation system of F, the fertility factor of Escherichia coli. Annu. Rev. Genet. 20:593–624.
30. Jordan, E.,, H. Saedler, and, P. Starlinger. 1968. O0 and strong-polar mutations in the gal operon are insertions. Mol. Gen. Genet. 102:353–363.
31. Lambert, T.,, G. Gerbaud, and, P. Courvalin. 1994. Characterization of the chromosomal aac(6’)-Ij gene of Acinetobacter sp. 13 and the aac(6’)-Ih plasmid gene of Acinetobacter baumannii. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 38:1883–1889.
32. Lane, H. E. 1981. Replication and incompatibility of F and plasmids in the IncFI group. Plasmid 5:100–126.
33. Leblanc,, D. J., and, L. N. Lee. 1984. Physical and genetic analyses of streptococcal plasmid pAM beta 1 and cloning of its replication region. J. Bacteriol. 157:445–453.
34. LeClerc, J. E., B. Li,, W. L. Payne, and, T. A. Cebula. 1996. High mutation frequencies among Escherichia coli and Salmonella pathogens. Science 274:1208–1211.
35. Levin, B. R., V. Perrot, and, N. Walker. 2000. Compensatory mutations, antibiotic resistance and the population genetics of adaptive evolution in bacteria. Genetics 154:985–997.
36. Maisnier-Patin, S.,, O. G. Berg,, L. Liljas, and, D. I. Andersson. 2002. Compensatory adaptation to the deleterious effect of antibiotic resistance in Salmonella typhimurium. Mol. Microbiol. 46:355–366.
37. Maqueda, M., R. Quirants,, I. Martin,, A. Galvez,, M. Martinez-Bueno, and, E. Valdivia. 1997. Chemical signals in gram-positive bacteria: the sex-pheromone system in Enterococcus faecalis. Microbiologia 13:23–36.
38. Marshall, C. G., G. Broadhead,, B. K. Leskiw, and, G. D. Wright. 1997. D-Ala–D-Ala ligases from glycopeptide antibiotic-producing organisms are highly homologous to the enterococcal vancomycin-resistance ligases VanA and VanB. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94:6480–6483.
39. Martin, C., C. Sibold, and, R. Hakenbeck. 1992. Relatedness of penicillin-binding protein 1a genes from different clones of penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae isolated in South Africa and Spain. EMBO J. 11:3831–3836.
40. Martinez, E., and, F. de la Cruz. 1990. Genetic elements involved in Tn21 site-specific integration, a novel mechanism for the dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes. EMBO J. 9:1275–1281.
41. Martinez, J. L., A. Alonso,, J. M. Gomez-Gomez, and, F. Baquero. 1998. Quinolone resistance by mutations in chromosomal gyrase genes. Just the tip of the iceberg? J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 42:683–688.
42. Maskell, J. P.,, A. M. Sefton, and, L. M. Hall. 1997. Mechanism of sulfonamide resistance in clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Anti-microb. Agents Chemother. 41:2121–2126.
43. Mazel, D., B. Dychinco,, V. A. Webb, and, J. Davies. 1998. A distinctive class of integron in the Vibrio cholerae genome. Science 280:605–608.
44. Mitsuhashi, S.,, K. Harada,, H. Hashimoto, and, R. Egawa. 1961. On the drug-resistance of enteric bacteria. Jpn. J. Exp. Med. 31:47–52.
45. Morton, T. M.,, J. L. Johnston,, J. Patterson, and, G. L. Archer. 1995. Characterization of a conjugative staphylococcal mupirocin resistance plasmid. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 39:1272–1280.
46. Musser, J. M. 1995. Antimicrobialagent resistance in mycobacteria: molecular genetic insights. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 8:496–514.
47. Nikaido,, H. 1998. Multiple antibiotic resistance and efflux. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 1:516–523.
48. Ouellette,, M., L. Bissonnette, and, P. H. Roy. 1987. Precise insertion of antibiotic resistance determinants into Tn21-like transposons:nucleotide sequence of the OXA-1 beta-lactamase gene. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84:7378–7382.
49. Poole, K. 2002. Outer membranes and efflux: the path to multidrug resistance in Gram-negative bacteria. Curr. Pharm. Biotechnol. 3:77–98.
50. Radstrom,, P., C. Fermer,, B. E. Kristiansen,, A. Jenkins,, O. Skold, and, G. Swedberg. 1992. Transformational exchanges in the dihydropteroate synthase gene of Neisseria meningitidis: a novel mechanism for acquisition of sulfonamide resistance. J. Bacteriol. 174:6386–6393.
51. Recchia, G. D.,, H. W. Stokes, and, R. M. Hall. 1994. Characterisation of specific and secondary recombination sites recognised by the integron DNA integrase. Nucleic Acids Res. 22:2071–2078.
52. Richmond, M. H., and, R. B. Sykes. 1972. The chromosomal integration of a β-lactamase gene derived from the P-type R-factor RP1 in Escherichia coli. Genet. Res. 20:231–237.
53. Rowe-Magnus, D. A., J. Davies, and, D. Mazel. 2002. Impact of integrons and transposons on the evolution of resistance and virulence. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 264:167–188.
54. Rowe-Magnus, D. A.,, A.-M. Guerout, and, D. Mazel. 1999. Super-integrons. Res. Microbiol. 150:641–651.
55. Rowe-Magnus, D. A.,, A. M. Guerout,, P. Ploncard,, B. Dychinco,, J. Davies, and, D. Mazel. 2001. The evolutionary history of chromosomal super-integrons provides an ancestry for multiresistant integrons. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98:652–657.
56. Salyers, A. A.,, N. B. Shoemaker,, A. M. Stevens, and, L. Y. Li. 1995. Conjugative transposons: an unusual and diverse set of integrated gene transfer elements. Microbiol. Rev. 59:579–590.
57. Schrag, S. J., V. Perrot, and, B. R. Levin. 1997. Adaptation to the fitness costs of antibiotic resistance in Escherichia coli. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 264:1287–1291.
58. Shapiro, J. A. 1969. Mutations caused by the insertion of genetic material into the galactose operon of Escherichia coli. J. Mol. Biol. 40:93–105.
59. Shaw,, K. J.,, P. N. Rather,, R. S. Hare, and, G. H. Miller. 1993. Molecular genetics of amino-glycoside resistance genes and familial relationships of the aminoglycoside-modifying enzymes. Microbiol. Rev. 57:138–163.
60. Spratt, B. G.,, L. D. Bowler,, Q. Y. Zhang,, J. Zhou, and, J. M. Smith. 1992. Role of interspecies transfer of chromosomal genes in the evolution of penicillin resistance in pathogenic and commensal Neisseria species. J. Mol. Evol. 34:115–125.
61. Spratt, B. G.,, Q. Y. Zhang,, D. M. Jones,, A. Hutchison,, J. A. Brannigan, and, C. G. Dowson. 1989. Recruitment of a penicillin-binding protein gene from Neisseria flavescens during the emergence of penicillin resistance in Neisseria meningitidis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:8988–8992.
62. Stokes, H. W., and, R. M. Hall. 1989. A novel family of potentially mobile DNA elements encoding site-specific gene-integration functions: integrons. Mol. Microbiol. 3:1669–1683.
63. Sundström, L., P. Radström,, G. Swedberg, and, O. Sköld. 1988. Site-specific recombination promotes linkage between trimethoprimand sulfonamide resistance genes. Sequence characterization of dhfrV and sulI and a recombination active locus of Tn21. Mol. Gen. Genet. 213:191–201.
64. Taddei, F., I. Matic,, B. Godelle, and, M. Radman. 1997. To be a mutator, or how pathogenic and commensal bacteria can evolve rapidly. Trends Microbiol. 5:427–428, discussion 428–429.
65. Thomas, C. M., and, C. A. Smith. 1987. Incompatibility group P plasmids: genetics, evolution, and use in genetic manipulation. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 41:77–101.
66. Thompson, J. K., and, M. A. Collins. 2003. Completed sequence of plasmid pIP501 and origin of spontaneous deletion derivatives. Plasmid 50:28–35.
67. Tran, J. H., and, G. A. Jacoby. 2002. Mechanism of plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99:5638–5642.
68. Tribuddharat, C., and, M. Fennewald. 1999. Integron-mediated rifampin resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 43:960–962.
69. Wang, M.,, D. F. Sahm,, G. A. Jacoby, and, D. C. Hooper. 2004. Emerging plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance associated with the qnr gene in Klebsiella pneumoniae clinical isolates in the United States. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48:1295–1299.
70. Wang, M.,, J. H. Tran,, G. A. Jacoby,, Y. Zhang,, F. Wang, and, D. C. Hooper. 2003. Plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance in clinical isolates of Escherichia coli from Shanghai, China. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47:2242–2248.
71. Watanabe, T. 1963. Infective heredity of multiple resistance in bacteria. Bacteriol. Rev. 27:87–115.
72. Weng,, S. F.,, C. Y. Chen,, Y. S. Lee,, J. W. Lin, and, Y. H. Tseng. 1999. Identification of a novel beta-lactamase produced by Xanthomonas campestris, a phytopathogenic bacterium. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 43:1792–1797.
73. Wu, S., C. Piscitelli,, H. de Lencastre, and, A. Tomasz. 1996. Tracking the evolutionary origin of the methicillin resistance gene: cloning and sequencing of a homologue of mecA from a methicillin susceptible strain of Staphylococcus sciuri. Microb. Drug Resist. 2:435–441.

Tables

The Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance
[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555815622.ch12-1,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555815622.ch12-1,properties={foaf_givenname=Dean, foaf_name=Dean Rowe-Magnus, foaf_surname=Rowe-Magnus, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555815622.ch12-aff1]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555815622.ch12-2,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555815622.ch12-2,properties={foaf_givenname=Didier, foaf_name=Didier Mazel, foaf_surname=Mazel, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555815622.ch12-aff2]]}]]
Citation: Rowe-Magnus D, Mazel D. 2006. The Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance, p 221-241. In Seifert H, DiRita V (ed), Evolution of Microbial Pathogens. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815622.ch12
/content/10.1128/9781555815622.ch12.ch12tab01
TABLE 1
Biochemical mechanisms of antibiotic resistance and their genetic determinants
Generic image for table
TABLE 1

Biochemical mechanisms of antibiotic resistance and their genetic determinants

Citation: Rowe-Magnus D, Mazel D. 2006. The Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance, p 221-241. In Seifert H, DiRita V (ed), Evolution of Microbial Pathogens. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815622.ch12

Back to top
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Please check the format of the address you have entered.
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error