Strengths and Shortcomings of Advanced Detection Technologies

L. D. Goodridge; P. Fratamico; L. S. Christensen; M. Griffith; J. Hoorfar; M. Carter; A. K. Bhunia; R. O’Kennedy

doi:10.1128/9781555817121.ch2

Chapter 2 : Strengths and Shortcomings of Advanced Detection Technologies

Authors: L. D. Goodridge¹, P. Fratamico², L. S. Christensen³, M. Griffith⁴, J. Hoorfar⁵, M. Carter⁶, A. K. Bhunia⁷, R. O’Kennedy⁸

VIEW AFFILIATIONS HIDE AFFILIATIONS

Affiliations: 1: Department of Animal Sciences, Center for Meat Safety and Quality, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523; 2: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Wyndmoor, PA 19038-0000; 3: Danish National Food Institute, Division of Microbiology and Risk Assessment, Technical University of Denmark, Mørkhøj Bygade 28, 2860 Søborg, Denmark; 4: Canadian Research Institute for Food Safety, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada, N1G 2W1; 5: Danish National Food Institute, Division of Microbiology and Risk Assessment, Technical University of Denmark, Mørkhøj Bygade 28, 2860 Søborg, Denmark; 6: Silliker Inc., 160 Armory Drive South Holland, IL 6047; 7: Department of Food Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907; 8: School of Biotechnology, Dublin City University, Dublin 9, Ireland

Content Type: Monograph

Publication Year: 2011

Category: Applied and Industrial Microbiology; Food Microbiology

Book DOI: 10.1128/9781555817121

Chapter DOI: 10.1128/9781555817121.ch2

MyBook is a cheap paperback edition of the original book and will be sold at uniform, low price.

Preview this chapter:

Strengths and Shortcomings of Advanced Detection Technologies, Page 1 of 2

< Previous page | Next page > /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555817121/9781555815424_Chap02-1.gif /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555817121/9781555815424_Chap02-2.gif

Abstract:

To overcome the sensitivity and specificity issues, current confirmatory foodborne pathogen detection methods generally require an initial, time-consuming growth step in culture media, followed by isolation on solid media, biochemical identification, and molecular or serological conformation. Rapid-detection-based technologies can reduce the time and labor involved in screening food products for the presence of pathogens. Many of the rapid tests can be completed within 24 h, with high throughput, thereby reducing the labor involved in the testing process. These assays can be broadly grouped into three categories including immunologically based methods, nucleic acid-based assays, and biosensors. This review focuses on methods to isolate and detect pathogens in food samples. The presence of pathogens in air and the transmission of infections in air is an intriguing phenomenon, which, although subject to a never-ending debate, incidentally plays prominent epidemiological roles in husbandry and transmission of zoonotic microorganisms from the primary sources of infection, i.e., animals. The detection of microorganisms in air traditionally has been accomplished by sampling of airborne particles with subsequent analysis of the samples by a vast variety of detection methods. Principles of air sampling include solid and liquid impaction, filter-based samplers, and electrostatic absorption.

Citation: Goodridge L, Fratamico P, Christensen L, Griffith M, Hoorfar J, Carter M, Bhunia A, O’Kennedy R. 2011. Strengths and Shortcomings of Advanced Detection Technologies, p 15-45. In Hoorfar J (ed), Rapid Detection, Characterization, and Enumeration of Foodborne Pathogens. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555817121.ch2

Highlighted Text: Show | Hide

Full text loading...

References

/content/book/10.1128/9781555817121.ch02

1. Acha, P. N.,, and B. Szyfres. 2003. Zoonoses and Communicable Diseases Common to Men and Animals, 3rd ed., vol. II. Chlamydioses, Rickettsioses and Vi-roses, p. 16–27. Pan American Health Organization, Washington, DC.

2. Acharya, G.,, C. Chun-Li, and, C. Savran. 2006. An optical biosensor for rapid and label-free detection of [bacterial] cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 128:3862–3863.

3. Afonina, I. A.,, M. W. Reed,, E. Lusby,, L. G. Shiskina, and, Y. S. Belousov. 2002. Minor groove binder conjugated DNA probes for quantitative DNA detection by hybridization-triggered fluorescence. BioTechniques 32:940–944.

4. Andersen, A. A. 1958. New sampler for the collection, sizing, and enumeration of viable airborne particles. J. Bacteriol. 76:471–484.

5. Anonymous. 1996. Microbiology of Food and Animal Feeding Stuffs—Horizontal Method for the Detection and Enumeration of Listeria monocytogenes —Part 1. Detection Method (ISO 11290-1:1996). International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland.

6. Arnal, C.,, J. M. Crance,, G. Gantzer,, L. Schwartzbrod,, R. Deloince, and, S. Billaudel. 1998. Persistence of infectious hepatitis A virus and its genome in artificial seawater. Zentralbl. Hyg. Umweltmed. 201:279–284.

7. Bae, E.,, P. P. Banada,, K. Huff,, A. K. Bhunia,, J. P. Robinson, and, E. D. Hirleman. 2007. Bio-physical modeling of forward scattering from bacterial colonies using scalar diffraction theory. Appl. Optics 46:3639–3648.

8. Banada, P. P.,, and A. K. Bhunia. 2008. Antibodies and immunoassays for detection of bacterial pathogens, p. 567–602. In M. Zourob,, S. Elwary, and, A. Turner (ed.), Principles of Bacterial Detection: Biosensors, Recognition Receptors and Microsystems. Cambridge University, Manchester, England.

9. Banada, P. P.,, S. L. Guo,, B. Bayraktar,, E. Bae,, B. Rajwa,, J. P. Robinson,, E. D. Hirleman, and, A. K. Bhunia. 2007. Optical forward-scattering for detection of Listeria monocytogenes and other Listeria species. Biosens. Bioelectron. 22:1664–1671.

10. Banada, P. P.,, K. Huff,, E. Bae,, B. Rajwa,, A. Aroonnual,, B. Bayraktar,, A. Adil,, J. P. Robinson,, E. D. Hirleman, and, A. K. Bhunia. 2009. Label-free detection of multiple bacterial pathogens using light-scattering sensor. Biosens. Bioelectron. 24:1685–1692.

11. Banerjee, P. 2008. Mammalian cell-based biosensor for rapid screening of pathogenic bacteria and toxins. Ph.D. thesis. Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN.

12. Banerjee, P.,, and A. K. Bhunia. 2009. Mammalian cell-based biosensors for pathogens and toxins. Trends Biotechnol. 27:179–188.

13. Banerjee, P.,, D. Lenz,, J. P. Robinson,, J. L. Rickus, and, A. K. Bhunia. 2008. A novel and simple cell-based detection system with a collagen-encapsulated B-lymphocyte cell line as a biosensor for rapid detection of pathogens and toxins. Lab. Investig. 88:196–206.

14. Barton, A. C.,, S. D. Collyer,, F. Davis,, G. Z. Garifallou,, G. Tsekenis,, E. Tully,, R. O’Kennedy,, T. D. Gibson,, P. A. Millner, and, S. P. J. Higson. 2009. Labeless AC impedimetric antibody-based sensors with pgml(–1) sensitivities for point-of-care biomedical applications. Biosens. Bioelectron. 24:1090–1095.

15. Berthomieu, C.,, and R. Hienerwadel. 2009. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Photosynth. Res. 101:157–170.

16. Beuret, C. 2004. Simultaneous detection of enteric viruses by multiplex real-time RT-PCR. J. Virol. Methods 115:1–8.

17. Beutin, L.,, K. Gleier, and, S. Zimmermann. 1999. Comparative evaluation of different diagnostic methods for detection of Shiga-toxin producing strains of Escherichia coli STEC in human clinical stool specimens, p. 89–93. In G. Duffy,, P. Garvey,, J. Coia,, Y. Wasteson, and, D. A. McDowell (ed.), Verocytotoxigenic E. coli in Europe. Concerted Action CT98-3935. 1. Methods for verocytotoxigenic E. coli. Teagasc, The National Food Centre, Dublin, Ireland.

18. Bhaduri, S.,, and B. Cottrell. 1997. Direct detection and isolation of plasmid-bearing virulent serotypes of Yersinia enterocolitica from various foods. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 63:4952–4955.

19. Bhunia, A. K. 2008. Biosensors and bio-based methods for the separation and detection of foodborne pathogens, p. 1–44. In S. Taylor (ed.), Advances in Food and Nutrition Research, vol. 54. Elsevier, Inc., New York, NY.

20. Bhunia, A. K.,, V. Nanduri,, E. Bae, and, E. D. Hirleman. 2010. Biosensors: foodborne pathogen detection, p. 23–39. In M. C. Flickinger (ed.), Encyclopedia of Industrial Biotechnology: Bioprocess, Bioseparation, and Cell Technology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ.

21. Bhunia, A. K.,, P. J. Steele,, D. G. Westbrook,, L. A. Bly,, T. P. Maloney, and, M. G. Johnson. 1994. A six-hour in vitro virulence assay for Listeria monocytogenes using myeloma and hybridoma cells from murine and human sources. Microb. Pathog. 16:99–110.

22. Bilir Ormanci, F. S.,, I. Erol,, N. D. Ayaz,, O. Iseri, and, D. Sariguzel. 2008. Immunomagnetic separation and PCR detection of Listeria monocytogenes in turkey deli meat and antibiotic resistance of the isolates. Br. Poult. Sci. 49:560–565.

23. Blais, B. W. 1994. Transcriptional enhancement of the Listeria monocytogenes PCR and simple immunoenzymatic assay of the product using anti-RNA: DNA antibodies. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60:348–352.

24. Blais, B. W.,, G. Turner,, R. Sooknanan, and, L. T. Malek. 1997. A nucleic acid sequence-based amplification system for detection of Listeria monocytogenes hlyA sequences. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 63:310–313.

25. Bohaychuk, V. M.,, G. E. Gensler,, R. K. King,, J. T. Wu, and, L. M. McMullen. 2005. Evaluation of detection methods for screening meat and poultry products for the presence of foodborne pathogens. J. Food Prot. 68:2637–2647.

26. Bosch, M.,, A. Sánchez,, F. Rojas, and, C. Ojeda. 2007. Recent development in optical fiber biosensors. Sensors 7:797–859.

27. Bourry, A.,, T. Cochard, and, B. Poutrel. 1997. Serological diagnosis of bovine, caprine, and ovine mastitis caused by Listeria monocytogenes by using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. J. Clin. Microbiol. 35:1606–1608.

28. Byrne, B.,, E. Stack,, N. Gilmartin, and, R. O. Kennedy. 2009. Antibody-based sensors: principles, problems and potential for detection of pathogens and associated toxins. Sensors 9:4407–4445.

29. Byrne, J. 2008. New phage offers rapid E. coli detection in meat, says Bio-Merieux. Food Quality News. (Online.) http://www.foodqualitynews.com / Product-Categories / Testing / New-phage-offers - rapid - E. - coli - detection - in - meat - says BioMerieux.

30. Call, D. R.,, F. J. Brockman, and, D. P. Chandler. 2001. Detecting and genotyping Escherichia coli O157:H7 using multiplexed PCR and nucleic acid microarrays. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 67:71–80.

31. Candish, A. A. G. 1991. Immunological methods in food microbiology. Food Microbiol. 8:1–14.

32. Chapman, P. A.,, D. J. Wright, and, C. A. Siddons. 1994. A comparison of immunomagnetic separation and direct culture for the isolation of verocytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli from bovine faeces. J. Med. Microbiol. 40:424–427.

33. Chen, W.,, G. Martinez, and, A. Mulchandani. 2000. Molecular beacons: a real-time polymerase chain reaction assay for detecting Salmonella. Anal. Biochem. 280:166–172.

34. Cheng, J.,, M. A. Shoffner,, G. E. Hvichia,, L. J. Kricka, and, P. Wilding. 1996. Chip PCR. II. Investigation of different PCR amplification systems in microfabricated silicon-glass chips. Nucleic Acids Res. 24:380–385.

35. Cheung, P. W.,, C. W. Chan,, W. Wong,, T. L. Cheung, and, K. M. Kam. 2004. Evaluation of two real-time polymerase chain reaction pathogen detection kits for Salmonella spp. in food. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 39:509–515.

36. Chizhikov, V.,, A. Rasooly,, K. Chumakov, and, D. D. Levy. 2001. Microarray analysis of microbial virulence factors. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67:3258–3263.

37. Christensen, L. S.,, J. Mousing,, S. Mortensen,, K. J. Soerensen,, S. B. Strandbygaard,, C. A. Henriksen, and, J. B. Andersen. 1990. Evidence of long distance airborne transmission of Aujeszky’s disease (pseudorabies) virus. Vet. Rec. 127:471–474.

38. Christensen, L. S.,, P. Normann,, S. Thykier-Nielsen,, J. H. Sørensen,, K. de Stricker, and, S. Rosenørn. 2005. Analysis of the epidemiological dynamics during the 1982–1983 epidemic of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in Denmark based on molecular high-resolution strain identification. J. Gen. Virol. 86:2577–2584.

39. Churruca, E.,, C. Girbau,, I. Martínez,, E. Mateo,, R. Alonso, and, A. Fernández-Astorga. 2007. Detection of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli in chicken meat samples by real-time nucleic acid sequence-based amplification with molecular beacons. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 117:85–90.

40. Conroy, P. J.,, S. Hearty,, P. Leonard, and, R. O’Kennedy. 2009. Antibody production, design and use for biosensor-based applications. Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. 20:10–26.

41. Cook, N. 2003. The use of NASBA for the detection of microbial pathogens in food and environmental samples. J. Microbiol. Methods 53:165–174.

42. Cooper, M. A.,, and V. T. Singleton. 2007. A survey of the 2001 to 2005 quarts crystal micro-balance biosensor literature: applications of acoustic physics to the analysis of biomolecular interactions. J. Mol. Recognit. 20:154–184.

43. Cremonesi, P.,, G. Pisoni,, M. Severgnini,, C. Consolandi,, P. Moroni,, M. Raschetti, and, B. Castiglioni. 2009. Pathogen detection in milk samples by ligation detection reaction-mediated universal array method. J. Dairy Sci. 92:3027–3039.

44. Curiale, M. S.,, W. Lepper, and, B. Robison. 1994. Enzyme-linked immunoassay for detection of Listeria monocytogenes in dairy products, seafoods, and meats: collaborative study. J. AOAC Int. 77:1472–1489.

45. Curtis, T.,, R. M. Z. G. Naal,, C. Batt,, J. Tabb, and, D. Holowka. 2008. Development of a mast cell-based biosensor. Biosens. Bioelectron. 23:1024–1031.

46. Czajka, J.,, and C. Batt. 1996. A solid phase fluorescent capillary immunoassay for the detection of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in ground beef and apple cider. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 81:601–607.

47. Daniels, D. A.,, H. Chen,, B. J. Hicke,, K. M. Swiderek, and, L. Gold. 2004. A tenascin-C ap-tamer identified by tumor cell SELEX: systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100:15416–15421.

48. D’Aoust, J. Y.,, A. M. Sewell, and, P. Greco. 1991. Commercial latex agglutination kits for the detection of foodborne Salmonella. J. Food Prot. 54:725–730.

49. de Boer, E.,, and A. E. Heuvelink. 2000. Methods for the detection and isolation of Shiga-toxin producing Escherichia coli. J. Appl. Microbiol. Symp. Suppl. 88:133S–143S.

50. Deng, M. Y.,, D. O. Cliver,, S. P. Day, and, P. M. Fratamico. 1996. Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli detected in foods by PCR and an enzyme-linked oligonucleotide probe. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 30:217–229.

51. Dimov, I. K.,, J. L. Garcia-Cordero,, J. O’Grady,, C. R. Poulsen,, C. Viguier,, L. Kent,, P. Daly,, B. Lincoln,, M. Maher,, R. O’Kennedy,, T. J. Smith,, A. J. Ricco, and, L. P. Lee. 2008. Integrated microfluidic tmRNA purification and real-time NASBA device for molecular diagnostics. Lab Chip 8:2071–2078.

52. Dooley, J. S. G. 1994. Nucleic acid probes for the food industry. Biotechnol. Adv. 12:669–677.

53. D’Souza, D. H.,, and L. A. Jaykus. 2003. Nucleic acid sequence based amplification for the rapid and sensitive detection of Salmonella enterica from foods. J. Appl. Microbiol. 95:1343–1350.

54. Dunbar, S. A.,, C. A. Vander Zee,, K. G. Oliver,, K. L. Karem, and, J. W. Jacobson. 2003. Quantitative, multiplexed detection of bacterial pathogens: DNA and protein applications of the Luminex LabMAP(TM) system. J. Microbiol. Methods 53:245–252.

55. Errington, F. P.,, and E. O. Powell. 1969. A cyclone sampler for aerosol sampling in the field. J. Hyg. Camb. 67:387–399.

56. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. 2010. Risk Assessment on Q Fever. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, Stockholm, Sweden. doi:10.2900/28860.

57. Feldstine, P. T.,, A. H. Lienau,, R. L. Forgey, and, R. D. Calhoon. 1997a. Assurance polyclonal enzyme immunoassay for detection of Listeria monocytogenes and related Listeria species in selected foods: collaborative study. J. AOAC Int. 80:775–790.

58. Feldstine, P. T.,, A. H. Lienau,, R. L. Forgey, and, R. D. Calhoon. 1997b. Visual immunoprecipitate assay (VIP) for Listeria monocytogenes and related Listeria species detection in selected foods: collaborative study. J. AOAC Int. 80:791–805.

59. Feng, P. 1996. Emergence of rapid methods for identifying microbial pathogens in foods. J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. Int. 79:809–812.

60. Feng, P. 1997. Impact of molecular biology on the detection of foodborne pathogens. Mol. Biotechnol. 7:267–278.

61. Feng, P. C. H. 2006. Overview of rapid methods for the detection of foodborne pathogens and toxins, p. 14–27. In V. K. Juneja,, J. P. Cherry &, M. H. Tunick (ed.), Advances in Microbial Food Safety. Oxford University Press, Washington, DC.

62. Fernández, M.,, B. del Río,, D. M. Linares,, M. C. Martín, and, M. A. Alvarez. 2006. Real-time polymerase chain reaction for quantitative detection of histamine-producing bacteria: use in cheese production. J. Dairy Sci. 89:3763–3769.

63. Fields, N. D.,, G. S. Oxborrow,, J. R. Puleo, and, C. M. Herring. 1974. Evaluation of membrane filter field monitors for microbiological air sampling. Appl. Microbiol. 27:517–520.

64. Fitzgerald, C.,, M. Collins,, S. van Duyne,, M. Mikoleit,, T. Brown, and, P. Fields. 2007. Multiplex, bead-based suspension array for molecular determination of common Salmonella serogroups. J. Clin. Microbiol. 45:3323–3334.

65. Fratamico, P. M.,, and C. DebRoy. 2010. Detection of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in food using real-time multiplex PCR assays targeting the stx 1, stx 2, wzyO157, and the fliC h7 or eae genes. Food Anal. Methods. doi:10.1007/s12161-010-9143-7.

66. Fratamico, P. M.,, S. K. Sackitey,, M. Wiedmann, and, M. Y. Deng. 1995. Detection of Escherichia coli O157:H7 by multiplex PCR. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33:2188–2191.

67. Fratamico, P. M.,, and T. P. Strobaugh. 1998. Simultaneous detection of Salmonella spp. and Escherichia coli O157:H7 by multiplex PCR. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 21:92–98.

68. Gavin, P. J.,, L. R. Peterson,, A. C. Pasquariello,, J. Blackburn,, M. G. Hamming,, K. J. Kuo, and, R. B. Thomson. 2004. Evaluation of performance and potential clinical impact of ProSpecT Shiga toxin Escherichia coli microplate assay for detection of Shiga toxin-producing E. coli in stool samples. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42:1652–1656.

69. Ge, B.,, C. Larkin,, S. Ahn,, M. Jolley,, M. Nasir,, J. Meng, and, R. H. Hall. 2002. Identification of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and other enterohemorrhagic serotypes by EHEC-hlyA targeting, strand displacement amplification, and fluorescence polarization. Mol. Cell. Probes 16:85–92.

70. Gehring, A. G.,, D. M. Albin,, A. K. Bhunia,, S. A. Reed,, S. I. Tu, and, J. Uknalis. 2006. Antibody microarray detection of Escherichia coli O157:H7: quantification, assay limitations, and capture efficiency. Anal. Chem. 78:6601–6607.

71. Gerone, P. J.,, R. B. Couch,, G. V. Keefer,, R. G. Douglas,, E. B. Derrenbacher, and, V. Knight. 1966. Assessment of experimental and natural viral aerosols. Bacteriol. Rev. 30:576–588.

72. Gilmour, M. W.,, D. M. Dracz,, A. K. Andrysiak,, C. G. Clark,, S. Tyson,, A. Severini, and, L. K. Ng. 2006. Use of the espZ gene encoded in the locus of enterocyte effacement for molecular typing of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli. J. Clin. Microbiol. 44:449–458.

73. Gloster, J.,, A. Freshwater,, R. F. Selelrs, and, S. Alexandersen. 2005. Reassessing the likelihood of airborne spread of foot-and-mouth disease at the start of the 1967–1968 UK foot-and-mouth disease epidemic. Epidemiol. Infect. 133:767–783.

74. Gooding, C. M.,, and P. V. Choudary. 1997. Rapid and sensitive immunomagnetic separation-polymerase chain reaction method for the detection of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in raw milk and icecream. J. Dairy Res. 64:87–93.

75. Gray, K. M.,, P. P. Banada,, E. O’Neal, and, A. K. Bhunia. 2005. Rapid Ped-2E9 cell-based cytotoxicity analysis and genotyping of Bacillus species. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43:5865–5872.

76. Gray, M. L.,, and A. H. Killinger. 1966. Listeria monocytogenes and listeric infections. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 30:309–382.

77. Grif, K.,, M. P. Dierich, and, F. Allerberger. 1998. Dynabeads plus 3M Petrifilm HEC versus Vitek Immunodiagnostic Assay System for detection of E. coli O157 in minced meat. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 26:199–204.

78. Gutierrez, R.,, T. Garcia,, I. Gonzalez,, B. Sanz,, P. E. Hernandez, and, R. Martin. 1998. Quantitative detection of meat spoilage bacteria by using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 26:372–376.

79. Guy, R. A.,, A. Kapoor,, J. Holicka,, D. Shepherd, and, P. A. Horgen. 2006. A rapid molecular-based assay for direct quantification of viable bacteria in slaughterhouses. J. Food Prot. 69:1265–1272.

80. Hammack, T. S. 2008. Committee on Microbiology and Extraneous Methods. J. AOAC Int. 91:23b–31b.

81. Hammond, G. W.,, R. L. Raddatz, and, D. E. Gelskey. 1989. Impact of atmospheric dispersion and transport of viral aerosols on the epidemiology of influenza. Rev. Infect. Dis. 11:494–497.

82. Hara-Kudo, Y.,, N. Konishi,, K. Ohtsuka,, R. Hirramatsu,, H. Tanaka,, H. Konum, and, K. Takatori. 2008. Detection of verotoxigenic Escherichia coli O157 and O26 in food by plating methods and LAMP method: a collaborative study. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 122:156–161.

83. He, Y.,, and C. Y. Chen. 2010. Quantitative analysis of viable, stressed and dead cells of Campylobacter jejuni strain 81-176. Food Microbiol. 27:439–446.

84. Hearty, S.,, P. Leonard, and, R. O’Kennedy. 2010. Nanomedicine: barcodes check out prostate cancer. Nat. Nanotechnol. 5:9–10.

85. Himathongkham, S.,, M. L. Dodd,, J. K. Yee,, D. K. Lau,, R. G. Bryant,, A. S. Badoiu,, H. K. Lau,, L. S. Guthertz,, L. Crawford-Miksza, and, M. A. Soliman. 2007. Recirculating immunomagnetic separation and optimal enrichment conditions for enhanced detection and recovery of low levels of Escherichia coli O157:H7 from fresh leafy produce and surface water. J. Food Prot. 70:2717–2724.

86. Hitchins, A. D. 2003. Listeria monocytogenes, p. 10.01–10.13. In U. S. Food and Drug Administration (ed.), Bacteriological Analytical Manual, 8th ed. AOAC International, Washington, DC.

87. Hudson, J. A.,, R. J. Lake,, M. G. Savill,, P. Scholes, and, R. E. McCormick. 2001. Rapid detection of Listeria monocytogenes in ham samples using immunomagnetic separation followed by polymerase chain reaction. J. Appl. Microbiol. 90:614–621.

88. Isogai, E.,, C. Makungu,, J. Yabe,, P. Sinkala,, A. Nambota,, H. Isogai,, H. Fukushi,, M. Silungwe,, C. Mubita,, M. Syakalima,, B. M. Hang’ombe,, S. Kozaki, and, J. Yasuda. 2005. Detection of Salmonella invA by isothermal and chimeric primer-initiated amplification of nucleic acids (ICAN) in Zambia. Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 28:363–370.

89. Jean, J.,, D. H. D’Souza, and, L. A. Jaykus. 2004. Multiplex nucleic acid sequence-based amplification for simultaneous detection of several enteric viruses in model ready-to-eat foods. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70:6603–6610.

90. Jenkins, C.,, M. C. Pearce,, A. W. Smith,, H. I. Knight,, D. J. Shaw,, T. Cheasty,, G. Foster,, G. J. Gunn,, G. Dougan,, H. R. Smith, and, G. Frankel. 2003. Detection of Escherichia coli serogroups O26, O103, O111, and O145 from bovine faeces using immunomagnetic separation and PCR/DNA probe techniques. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 37:207–212.

91. Jensen, G. B.,, L. Thomsen, and, O. R. Veltman. September 2005. Method, chip, device and integrated system for detection of biological materials. International patent WO2005083426.

92. Johnson, J.,, K. Jinneman,, G. Stelma,, B. G. Smith,, D. Lye,, J. Messer,, J. Ulaszek,, L. Evsen,, S. Gendel,, R. W. Bennett,, B. Swaminathan,, J. Pruckler,, A. Steigerwalt,, S. Kathariou,, S. Yildirim,, D. Volokhov,, A. Rasooly,, V. Chizhikov,, M. Wiedmann,, E. Fortes,, R. E. Duvall, and, A. D. Hitchins. 2004. Natural atypical Listeria innocua strains with Listeria monocytogenes pathogenicity island 1 genes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70:4256–4266.

93. Johnson, R. P.,, R. J. Durham,, S. T. Johnson,, L. A. MacDonald,, S. R. Jeffrey, and, B. T. Butman. 1995. Detection of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in meat by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, EHEC-Tek. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:386–388.

94. Jokers, J. V.,, J. W. Jacobson,, B. D. Bhagwandin,, P. N. Floriano,, N. Christodoulides, and, J. T. McDevitt. 2010. Programmable nano-bio-chip sensors: analytical meets clinical. Anal. Chem. 82:1571–1579.

95. Jones, A.,, D. Young,, J. Taylor,, D. B. Kell, and, J. J. Rowland. 1998. Quantification of microbial productivity via multi-angle light scattering and supervised learning. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 59:131–143.

96. Josefsen, M. H.,, N. R. Jacobsen, and, J. Hoorfar. 2004. Enrichment followed by quantitative PCR both for rapid detection and as a tool for quantitative risk assessment of foodborne thermotolerant campylobacters. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70:3588–3592.

97. Josefsen, M. H.,, M. Krause,, F. Hansen, and, J. Hoorfar. 2007. Optimization of a 12-hour TaqMan PCR-based method for detection of Salmonella in meat. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73:3040–3048.

98. Josephson, K. L.,, C. P. Gerba, and, I. L. Pepper. 1993. Polymerase chain reaction detection of nonviable bacterial pathogens. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59:3513–3515.

99. Keramas, G.,, D. D. Bang,, M. Lund,, M. Madsen,, H. Bunkenborg,, P. Telleman, and, C. B. V. Christensen. 2004. Use of culture, PCR analysis, and DNA microarrays for detection of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli from chicken feces. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42:3985–3991.

100. Kim, J. S.,, G. P. Anderson,, J. S. Erickson,, J. P. Golden,, M. Nasir, and, F. S. Ligler. 2009. Multiplexed detection of bacteria and toxins using a microflow cytometer. Anal. Chem. 81:5426–5432.

101. Kim, S. H.,, M. K. Park,, J. Y. Kim,, P. D. Chuong,, Y. S. Lee,, B. S. Yoon,, K. K. Hwang, and, K. L. Yoon. 2005. Development of a sandwich ELISA for the detection of Listeria spp. using specific flagella antibodies. J. Vet. Sci. 6:41–46.

102. Kintzios, S.,, E. Pistola,, P. Panagiotopoulos,, M. Bomsel,, N. Alexandropoulos,, F. Bem,, G. Ekonomou,, J. Biselis, and, R. Levin. 2001. Bioelectric recognition assay (BERA). Biosens. Bioelectron. 16:325–336.

103. Klein, P. G.,, and V. K. Juneja. 1997. Sensitive detection of viable Listeria monocytogenes by reverse transcription-PCR. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 63:4441–4448.

104. Koch, W. H.,, W. L. Payne,, B. A. Wentz, and, T. A. Cebula. 1993. Rapid polymerase chain reaction method for detection of Vibrio cholerae in foods. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59:556–560.

105. Koh, C. G.,, W. Tan,, M. Q. Zhao,, A. J. Ricco, and, Z. H. Fan. 2003. Integrating polymerase chain reaction, valving, and electrophoresis in a plastic device for bacterial detection. Anal. Chem. 75:4591–4598.

106. Krause, M.,, M. H. Josefsen,, M. Lund,, N. R. Jacobsen,, L. Brorsen,, M. Moos,, A. Stockmarr, and, J. Hoorfar. 2006. Comparative, collaborative, and on-site validation of a TaqMan PCR method as a tool for certified production of fresh, Campylobacter-free chickens. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 72:5463–5468.

107. Kricka, L. J. 1998. Miniaturization of analytical system. Clin. Chem. 44:2008–2014.

108. Kricka, L. J. 2001. Microchips, microarrays, biochips and nanochips: personal laboratories for the 21st century. Clin. Chim. Acta 307:219–223.

109. Kudelski, A. 2008. Analytical applications of Raman spectroscopy. Talanta 76:1–8.

110. Lai, R. Y.,, E. T. Lagally,, S. H. Lee,, H. T. Soh,, K. W. Plaxco, and, A. J. Heeger. 2006. Rapid, sequence-specific detection of unpurified PCR amplicons via a reusable, electrochemical sensor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103:4017–4021.

111. Lazcka, O.,, F. J. D. Campo, and, F. X. Muñoz. 2007. Pathogen detection: a perspective of traditional methods and biosensors. Biosens. Bioelectron. 22:1205–1217.

112. Le Guyader, F. S.,, F. Bon,, D. DeMedici,, S. Parnaudeau,, A. Bertone,, S. Crudeli,, A. Doyle,, M. Zidane,, E. Suffredini,, E. Kohli,, F. Maddalo,, M. Monini,, A. Gallay,, M. Pommepuy,, P. Pothier, and, F. M. Ruggeri. 2006. Detection of multiple noroviruses associated with an international gastroenteritis outbreak linked to oyster consumption. J. Clin. Microbiol. 44:3878–3882.

113. Lehtola, M. J.,, E. Torvinen,, I. T. Miettinen, and, C. W. Keevil. 2006. Fluorescence in situ hybridization using peptide nucleic acid probes for rapid detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. avium and Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in potable-water biofilms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 72:848–853.

114. Leonard, P.,, P. Säfsten,, S. Hearty,, B. McDonnell,, W. I. Finlay, and, R. O’Kennedy. 2007. High throughput ranking of recombinant avian scFv antibody fragments from crude lysates using the Biacore A100. J. Immunol. Methods 323:172–179.

115. León Muiños, E.,, M. L. Pérez Del Molino,, F. L. Lado,, M. Pazo Nuñez, and, F. Pardo. 2004. Use of ligase chain reaction for the rapid diagnosis of lymph node tuberculosis. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 36:724–726.

116. Leung, A.,, P. M. Shankar, and, R. Mutharasan. 2007. A review of fiber-optic biosensors. Sens. Actuat. B 125:688–703.

117. Li, F.,, C. Zhao,, W. Zhang,, S. Cui,, J. Meng,, J. Wu, and, D. Y. Zhang. 2005a. Use of ramification amplification assay for detection of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and other E. coli Shiga toxin-producing strains. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43:6086–6090.

118. Li, W.,, and M. A. Drake. 2001. Development of a quantitative competitive PCR assay for detection and quantification of Escherichia coli O157:H7 cells. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67:3291–3294.

119. Li, Y.,, X. Huang,, I. T. Yu,, T. W. Wong, and, H. Qian. 2005b. Role of air distribution in SARS transmission during the largest nosocomial outbreak in Hong Kong. Indoor Air 15:83–95.

120. Lim, D. V.,, J. M. Simpson,, E. A. Kearns, and, M. F. Kramer. 2005. Current and developing technologies for monitoring agents of bioterrorism and biowarfare. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 18:583–607.

121. Liming, S. H.,, and A. A. Bhagwat. 2004. Application of a molecular beacon—real-time PCR technology to detect Salmonella species contaminating fruits and vegetables. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 95:177–187.

122. Liu, C.,, N. C. Cady, and, C. A. Batt. 2009. Nucleic acid-based detection of bacterial pathogens using integrated microfluidic platform systems. Sensors 9:3713–3744.

123. Liu, R. H.,, J. Yang,, R. Lenigk,, J. Bonanno, and, P. Grodzinski. 2004. Self-contained, fully integrated biochip for sample preparation, polymerase chain reaction amplification, and DNA microarray detection. Anal. Chem. 76:1824–1831.

124. Liu, Y.,, Q. Gao,, X. Zhang,, Y. Hou,, J. Yang, and, X. Huang. 2006. PCR and oligonucleotide array for detection of Enterobacter sakazakii in infant formula. Mol. Cell. Probes 20:11–17.

125. Lynam, C.,, N. Gilmartin,, A. I. Minett,, R. O’Kennedy, and, G. Wallace. 2009. Carbon nanotube based transducers for immunoassays. Carbon 47:2337–2343.

126. Mackenzie, A. M. R.,, P. Lebel,, E. Orrbine,, P. Rowe,, L. Hyde,, F. Chan,, W. Johnson,, P. N. McLaine, et al. 1998. Sensitivities and specificities of Premier E. coli O157 and Premier EHEC enzyme immunoassays for diagnosis of infection with verotoxin (Shiga-like toxin)-producing Escherichia coli. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38:547–551.

127. Manafi, M. 1996. Fluorogenic and chromogenic enzyme substrates in culture media and identification tests. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 31:45–58.

128. Maruyama, F.,, T. Kenzaka,, N. Yamaguchi,, K. Tani, and, M. Nasu. 2005. Visualization and enumeration of bacteria carrying a specific gene sequence by in situ rolling circle amplification. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71:7933–7940.

129. Matar, G. M.,, W. F. Bibb,, L. Helsel,, W. Dewitt, and, B. Swaminathan. 1992. Immunoaffinity purification, stabilization and comparative characterization of listeriolysin O from Listeria monocytogenes serotypes 1/2a and 4b. Res. Microbiol. 143:489–498.

130. Mattingly, J. A.,, B. T. Butman,, M. C. Plank,, R. J. Durham, and, B. J. Robison. 1988. Rapid monoclonal antibody-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of Listeria in food products. J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 71:679–681.

131. May, K. R.,, and G. J. Harper. 1957. The efficiency of various liquid impinge samplers in bacterial aerosols. Br. J. Ind. Med. 14:287–297.

132. Moberg, L. J.,, M. K. Wagner, and, L. A. Kellen. 1988. Fluorogenic assay for rapid detection of Escherichia coli in chilled and frozen foods: collaborative study. J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 71:589–602.

133. Monteiro, L.,, D. Bonnemaison,, A. Vekris,, K. G. Petry,, J. Bonnet,, R. Vidal,, J. Cabrita, and, F. Mégraud. 1997. Complex polysaccharides as PCR inhibitors in feces: Helicobacter pylori model. J. Clin. Microbiol. 35:995–998.

134. Moreno, Y.,, M. Hernandez,, M. A. Ferrus,, J. L. Alonso,, S. Botella,, R. Montes, and, J. Hernandez. 2001. Direct detection of thermotolerant campylobacters in chicken products by PCR and in situ hybridization. Res. Microbiol. 152:577–582.

135. Murray, P.,, E. J. Baron,, J. H. Jorgensen,, M. A. Pfaller, and, R. H. Yolken (ed.). 2003. Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 8th ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.

136. Myers, K. M.,, J. Gaba, and, S. F. Al-Khaldi. 2006. Molecular identification of Yersinia enterocolitica isolated from pasteurized whole milk using DNA microarray chip hybridization. Mol. Cell. Probes 20:71–80.

137. Nickisch-Rosenegk, M.,, X. Marschan,, D. Andresen,, A. Abraham,, C. Heise, and, F. F. Bier. 2005. On-chip PCR amplification of very long templates using immobilized primers on glassy surfaces. Biosens. Bioelectron. 20:1491–1498.

138. Notermans, S.,, and K. Wernars. 1991. Immunological methods for detection of foodborne pathogens and their toxins. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 12:91–102.

139. Notermans, S. H.,, J. Dufrenne,, M. Leimeister-Wachter,, E. Domann, and, T. Chakraborty. 1991. Phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C activity as a marker to distinguish between pathogenic and nonpathogenic Listeria species. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 57:2666–2670.

140. Notomi, T.,, H. Okayama,, H. Masubuchi,, T. Yonekawa,, K. Watanabe,, N. Amino, and, T. Hase. 2000. Loopmediated isothermal amplification of DNA. Nucleic Acids Res. 28:E63.

141. Ohtsuka, K.,, K. Yanagawa,, K. Takatori, and, Y. H. Kudo. 2005. Detection of Salmonella enterica in naturally contaminated liquid eggs by loop-mediated isothermal amplification, and characterization of Salmonella isolate. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71:6730–6735.

142. O’Kennedy, R.,, S. Townsend,, G. G. Donohoe,, P. Leonard,, S. Hearty, and, B. Byrne. 2010. Speedy, small, sensitive and specific—reality or myth for future analytical methods. Anal. Lett. 33:1630–1648.

143. Olsen, J. E.,, S. Aabo,, W. Hill,, S. Notermans,, K. Wernar,, P. E. Granum,, T. Popovic,, H. N. Rasmussen, and, Ø. Olsvik. 1995. Probes and polymerase chain reaction for detection of food-borne bacterial pathogens. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 28:1–78.

144. Olsen, K. N.,, M. Lund,, J. Skov,, L. S. Christensen, and, J. Hoorfar. 2009. Detection of Campylobacter bacteria in air samples for continuous real-time monitoring of Campylobacter colonization in broiler flocks. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 75:2074–2078.

145. Olsvik, O.,, T. Popovic,, E. Skjerve,, K. S. Cudjoe,, E. Hornes,, J. Ugelstad, and, M. Uhlen. 1994. Magnetic separation techniques in diagnostic microbiology. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 7:43–54.

146. O’Shaughnessy, T. J.,, and J. J. Pancrazio. 2007. Broadband detection of environmental neurotoxicants. Anal. Chem. 79:8838–8845.

147. Palladino, S.,, I. D. Kay,, A. M. Costa,, E. J. Lambert, and, J. P. Flexman. 2003. Real-time PCR for the rapid detection of vanA and vanB genes. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 45:81–84.

148. Palumbo, J. D.,, M. K. Borucki,, R. E. Mandrell, and, L. Gorski. 2003. Serotyping of Listeria monocytogenes by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and identification of mixed-serotype cultures by colony immunoblotting. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41:564–571.

149. Paoli, G. C.,, C. Y. Chen, and, J. D. Brewster. 2004. Single-chain Fv antibody with specificity for Listeria monocytogenes. J. Immunol. Methods 289:147–155.

150. Park, E. J.,, H. W. Chang,, K. H. Kim,, Y. D. Nam,, S. W. Roh, and, J. W. Bae. 2009. Application of quantitative real-time PCR for enumeration of total bacterial, archaeal, and yeast populations in kimchi. J. Microbiol. 47:682–685.

151. Phillips, K. S.,, and Q. Cheng. 2007. Development of a “membrane cloaking” method for amperometric enzyme immunoassay and surface plasmon resonance analysis of proteins in serum samples. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 387:1831–1840.

152. Playford, E. G.,, B. McCall,, G. Smith,, V. Slinko,, G. Allen,, I. Smith,, F. Moore,, C. Taylor,, Y. H. Kung, and, H. Field. 2010. Human Hendra virus encephalitis associated with equine outbreak, Australia, 2008. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 16:219–223.

153. Rasco, B.,, and G. E. Bledsoe. 2005. Bioterrorism and Food Safety. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

154. Reischl, U.,, S. Bretagne,, D. Krüger,, P. Ernault, and, R. J. M. Costa. 2003. Comparison of two DNA targets for the diagnosis of toxoplasmosis by real-time PCR using fluorescence resonance energy transfer hybridization probes. BMC Infect. Dis. 3:7.

155. Relman, D. A.,, T. M. Schmidt,, R. P. Mac-Dermott, and, S. Falkow. 1992. Identification of the uncultured bacillus of Whipple’s disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 327:293–301.

156. Reynisson, E.,, M. H. Josefsen,, M. Krause, and, J. Hoorfar. 2006. Novel probes to improve the detection limit of real-time PCR, using Salmonella as a model. J. Microbiol. Methods 66:206–216.

157. Rider, T. H.,, M. S. Petrovick,, F. E. Nargi,, J. D. Harper,, E. D. Schwoebel,, R. H. Mathews,, D. J. Blanchard,, L. T. Bortolin,, A. M. Young,, J. Chen, and, M. A. Hollis. 2003. A B cell-based sensor for rapid identification of pathogens. Science 301:213–215.

158. Rodríguez-Lázaro, D.,, M. Hernández,, M. Scortti,, T. Esteve,, J. A. Vásquez-Boland, and, M. Pla. 2004a. Quantitative detection of Listeria monocytogenes and Listeria innocua by real-time PCR: assessment of hly, iap, and lin02483 targets and AmpliFluor technology. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70:1366–1377.

159. Rodríguez-Lázaro, D.,, J. Lloyd,, A. Herrewegh,, J. Ikonomopoulos,, M. D’Agostino,, M. Pla, and, N. Cook. 2004b. A molecular beacon-based real-time NASBA assay for detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in water and milk. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 237:119–126.

160. Rossen, L.,, P. Nørskov,, K. Holmstrøm, and, O. F. Rasmussen. 1992. Inhibition of PCR by components of food samples, microbial diagnostic assays and DNA-extraction solutions. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 17:37–45.

161. Ryan, K. J. 2004. Enterobacteriaceae. In K. Ryan &, C. Ray (ed.), Sherris Medical Microbiology, an Introduction to Infectious Diseases, 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.

162. Rybolt, R. L.,, R. W. Wills,, J. A. Byrd,, T. P. Doler, and, R. H. Bailey. 2004. Comparison of four Salmonella isolation techniques in four different inoculated matrices. Poult. Sci. 83:1112–1116.

163. Sachse, K.,, and J. Frey 2003. PCR Detection of Microbial Pathogens. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ.

164. Sambrook, J.,, and D. W. Russell. 2001. Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual (3rd ed.), p. 8.1–8.113. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, NY.

165. Selby, C. 1999. Interference in immunoassay. Ann. Clin. Biochem. 36:704–721.

166. Seo, K. H.,, P. S. Holt,, H. D. Stone, and, R. K. Gast. 2003. Simple and rapid methods for detecting Salmonella enteritidis in raw eggs. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 87:139–144.

167. Sergeev, N.,, D. Volokhov,, V. Chizhikov, and, A. Rasooly. 2004. Simultaneous analysis of multiple staphylococcal enterotoxin genes by an oligonucleotide microarray assay. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42:2134–2143.

168. Sewell, A. M.,, D. W. Warburton,, A. Boville,, E. F. Daley, and, K. Mullen. 2003. The development of an efficient and rapid enzyme linked fluorescent assay method for the detection of Listeria spp. from foods. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 81:123–129.

169. Sharma, V. K. 2002. Detection and quantitation of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157, O111, and O26 in beef and bovine feces by real-time polymerase chain reaction. J. Food Prot. 65:1371–1380.

170. Sheridan, G. E. C.,, C. I. Masters,, J. A. Shallcross, and, B. M. Mackey. 1998. Detection of mRNA by reverse transcription-PCR as an indicator of viability in Escherichia coli cells. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64:1313–1318.

171. Shim, W. B.,, J. G. Choi,, J. Y. Kim,, Z. Y. Yang,, K. H. Lee,, M. G. Kim,, S. D. Ha,, K. S. Kim,, K. Y. Kim,, C. H. Kim,, S. A. Eremin, and, D. H. Chung. 2008. Enhanced rapidity for qualitative detection of Listeria monocytogenes using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and immunochromatography strip test combined with immunomagnetic bead separation. J. Food Prot. 71:781–789.

172. Shroyer, M. L.,, and A. K. Bhunia. 2003. Development of a rapid 1-h fluorescence-based cytotoxicity assay for Listeria species. J. Microbiol. Methods 55:35–40.

173. Simpkins, S. A.,, A. B. Chan,, J. Hays,, B. Pöpping, and, N. Cook. 2000. A RNA transcription-based amplification technique (NASBA) for the detection of viable Salmonella enterica. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 20:75–79.

174. Skjerve, E.,, and O. Olsvik. 1991. Immunomagnetic separation of Salmonella from foods. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 14:11–18.

175. Skottrup, P. D.,, M. Nicolaisen, and, A. F. Justesen. 2008. Toward on-site pathogen detection using antibody-based sensors. Biosens. Bioelectron. 24:339–348.

176. Stapleton, S.,, B. Bradshaw, and, R. O’Kennedy. 2009. Development of a surface plasmon resonance-based assay for the detection of Coryne-bacterium pseudotuberculosis infection in sheep. Anal. Chim. Acta 651:98–104.

177. Stenger, D. A.,, G. W. Gross,, E. W. Keefer,, K. M. Shaffer,, J. D. Andreadis,, W. Ma, and, J. J. Pancrazio. 2001. Detection of physiologically active compounds using cell-based biosensors. Trends Biotechnol. 19:304–309.

178. Stroup, S. E.,, S. Roy,, J. Mchele,, V. Maro,, S. Ntabaguzi,, A. Siddique,, G. Kang,, R. L. Guerrant,, B. D. Kirkpatrick,, R. Fayer,, J. Herbein,, H. Ward,, R. Haque, and, E. R. Houpt. 2006. Real-time PCR detection and speciation of Cryptosporidium infection using Scorpion probes. J. Med. Microbiol. 55:1217–1222.

179. Suo, B.,, Y. He,, G. Paoli,, A. Gehring,, S.-I. Tu, and, X. Shi. 2010. Development of an oligonucleotide-based microarray to detect multiple foodborne pathogens. Mol. Cell. Probes 24:77–86.

180. Swaminathan, B.,, and P. Feng. 1994. Rapid detection of food-borne pathogenic bacteria. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 48:401–426.

181. Takahashi, H.,, Y. Hara-Kudo,, J. Miyasaka,, S. Kumagai, and, H. Konuma. 2005. Development of a quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction targeted to the toxR for detection of Vibrio vulnificus. J. Microbiol. Methods 61:77–85.

182. Techathuvanan, C.,, F. A. Draughon, and, D. H. D’Souza. 2010. Real-time reverse transcriptase PCR for the rapid and sensitive detection of Salmonella Typhimurium from pork. J. Food Prot. 73:507–514.

183. Tellier, R. 2006. Review on aerosol transmission of influenza A virus. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 12:1657–1662.

184. Tencza, S. B.,, and M. A. Sipe. 2004. Detection and classification of threat agents via high-content assays of mammalian cells. J. Appl. Toxicol. 24:371–377.

185. Teunis, P.,, K. Takumi, and, K. Shinagawa. 2004. Dose response for infection by Escherichia coli O157:H7 from outbreak data. Risk Anal. 24:401–407.

186. Tokarskyy, O.,, and D. L. Marshall. 2008. Immunosensors for rapid detection of Escherichia coli O157:H7—perspectives for use in the meat processing industry. Food Microbiol. 25:1–12.

187. Tombelli, S.,, M. Minunni, and, M. Mascini. 2007. Aptamers-based assays for diagnostics, environmental and food analysis. Biomol. Eng. 24:191–200.

188. Tsai, W.,, C. E. Miller, and, E. R. Richter. 2000. Determination of the sensitivity of a rapid Escherichia coli O157:H7 assay for testing 375-gram composite samples. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66:4149–4151.

189. Tsen, H. Y.,, L. Z. Jian, and, W. R. Chi. 1998. Use of a multiplex PCR system for the simultaneous detection of heat labile toxin I and heat stable toxin II genes of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli in skim milk and porcine stool. J. Food Prot. 61:141–145.

190. Uyttendaele, M.,, I. Van Hoorde, and, J. Debevere. 2000. The use of immunomagnetic separation (IMS) as a tool in a sample preparation method for direct detection of L. monocytogenes in cheese. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 54:205–212.

191. Vet, J. A. M.,, A. R. Majthia,, S. A. E. Marras,, S. Tyagi,, S. Dube,, B. J. Poiesz, and, F. R. Kramer. 1999. Multiplex detection of four pathogenic retroviruses using molecular beacons. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96:6394–6399.

192. Vishnubhatla, A.,, D. Y. C. Fung,, R. D. Oberst,, M. P. Hays,, T. G. Nagaraja, and, S. J. A. Flood. 2000. Rapid 5′ nuclease (TaqMan) assay for detection of virulent strains of Yersinia enterocolitica. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66:4131–4135.

193. Volokov, D.,, A., Rasooly,, K. Chumakov, and, V. Chizhikov. 2002. Identification of Listeria species by microarray-based assay. J. Clin. Microbiol. 40:4720–4728.

194. Volokov, D.,, V. Chizhikov,, K. Chumakov, and, A. Rasooly. 2003. Microarray-based identification of thermophilic Campylobacter jejuni, C. coli, C. lari, and C. upsaliensis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41:4071–4080.

195. Waggoner, P. C.,, and H. G. Craighead. 2007. Micro- and nanomechanical sensors for environmental, chemical and biological detection. Lab Chip 7:1238–1255.

196. Wang, B.,, S. J. Potter,, Y. Lin,, A. L. Cunningham,, D. E. Dwyer,, Y. Su,, X. Ma,, Y. Hou, and, N. K. Saksena. 2005. Rapid and sensitive detection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus by rolling circle amplification. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43:2339–2344.

197. Wang, Q.,, S. Wang,, L. Beutin,, B. Cao,, L. Feng, and, L. Wang. 2010. Development of a DNA microarray for detection and serotyping of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli. J. Clin. Microbiol. 48:2066–2074.

198. Ward, L. N.,, and A. K. Bej. 2006. Detection of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in shellfish by use of multiplexed real-time PCR with TaqMan fluorescent probes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 72:2031–2042.

199. Washington, C.,, D. Metzgar,, H. Hazbón,, L. Binn,, A. Lyons,, C. Coward, and, R. Kuschner. 2010. Multiplexed Luminex xMAP assay for detection and identification of five adenovirus serotypes associated with epidemics of respiratory disease in adults. J. Clin. Microbiol. 48:2217–2222.

200. Waters, L. C.,, S. C. Jacobson,, N. Kroutchinina,, J. Khandurina,, R. S. Foote, and, J. M. Ramsey. 1998. Multiple sample PCR amplification and electrophoretic analysis on a microchip. Anal. Chem. 70:5172–5176.

201. Westin, L.,, X. Xu,, C. Miller,, L. Wang,, C. F. Edman, and, M. Nerenberg. 2000. Anchored multiplex amplification on a microelectronic chip array. Nat. Biotechnol. 18:199–204.

202. Wiedmann, M.,, J. Czajka,, F. Barany, and, C. A. Batt. 1992. Discrimination of Listeria monocytogenes from other Listeria species by ligase chain reaction. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58:3443–3447.

203. Wieneke, A. A. 1991. Comparison of four kits for the detection of staphylococcal enterotoxin in foods from outbreaks of food poisoning. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 14:305–312.

204. Willford, J.,, K. Mills, and, L. D. Goodridge. 2009. Evaluation of three commercially available ELISA kits for detection of Shiga toxin–producing Escherichia coli. J. Food Prot. 72:741–747.

205. Wilson, W. J.,, A. M. Erler,, S. L. Nasarabadi,, E. W. Skowronski, and, P. M. Imbro. 2005. A multiplexed PCR-coupled liquid bead array for the simultaneous detection of four biothreat agents. Mol. Cell. Probes 19:137–144.

206. Wolcott, M. J. 1992. Advances in nucleic acid-based detection methods. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 5:370–386.

207. Wolffs, P. F.,, K. Glencross,, R. Thibaudeau, and, M. W. Griffiths. 2006. Direct quantitation and detection of salmonellae in biological samples without enrichment, using two-step filtration and real-time PCR. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 72:3896–3900.

208. Woolley, A. T.,, D. Hadley,, P. Landre,, A. J. deMello,, R. A. Mathies, and, M. A. Northrup. 1996. Functional integration of PCR amplification and capillary electrophoresis in a microfabricated DNA analysis device. Anal. Chem. 68:4081–4086.

209. Wright, D. J.,, P. A. Chapman, and, C. A. Sid-dons. 1994. Immunomagnetic separation as a sensitive method for isolating Escherichia coli O157 from food samples. Epidemiol. Infect. 113:31–39.

210. Yao, Y.,, C. Nellåker, and, H. Karlsson. 2006. Evaluation of minor groove binding probe and Taqman probe PCR assays: influence of mismatches and template complexity on quantification. Mol. Cell. Probes 20:311–316.

211. Ziegler, C. 2000. Cell-based biosensors. Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 366:552–559.