1887

Chapter 22 : Genitourinary Tract Infections

Authors: Odaliz Abreu Lanfranco1, George J. Alangaden2
VIEW AFFILIATIONS HIDE AFFILIATIONS
Affiliations: 1: Division of Infectious Diseases, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI 48202; 2: Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202
Content Type: Monograph
Publication Year: 2016

Category: Clinical Microbiology

MyBook is a cheap paperback edition of the original book and will be sold at uniform, low price.

Preview this chapter:
Preview Magnify
Zoom in
Zoomout

Genitourinary Tract Infections, Page 1 of 2

| /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555819040/9781555819033_Chap22-1.gif /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555819040/9781555819033_Chap22-2.gif

Abstract:

Infections of the genitourinary tract are a common cause of morbidity in both the general population and in patients with compromised immune systems. Genitourinary tract infections can be broadly classified into a) urinary tract infections (UTI) including cystitis, pyelonephritis and prostatitis; and b) genital tract infections including urethritis, cervicitis, epididymitis, genital ulcerative diseases, endometritis, and pelvic inflammatory disease.

Citation: Lanfranco O, Alangaden G. 2016. Genitourinary Tract Infections, p 569-611. In Hayden R, Wolk D, Carroll K, Tang Y (ed),

Diagnostic Microbiology of the Immunocompromised Host, Second Edition

. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/microbiolspec.DMIH2-0019-2015
Highlighted Text: Show | Hide
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

Figures

Genitourinary Tract Infections
[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555819040.chap22-1,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555819040.chap22-1,properties={foaf_givenname=Odaliz Abreu, foaf_name=Odaliz Abreu Lanfranco, foaf_surname=Lanfranco, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555819040.chap22-aff1]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555819040.chap22-2,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555819040.chap22-2,properties={foaf_givenname=George J., foaf_name=George J. Alangaden, foaf_surname=Alangaden, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555819040.chap22-aff2]]}]]
Citation: Lanfranco O, Alangaden G. 2016. Genitourinary Tract Infections, p 569-611. In Hayden R, Wolk D, Carroll K, Tang Y (ed),

Diagnostic Microbiology of the Immunocompromised Host, Second Edition

. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/microbiolspec.DMIH2-0019-2015
/content/10.1128/9781555819040.chap22.fig22-1
Figure 1

Screening and management of kidney transplant patients for BKV replication and polyomavirus-associated nephropathy (PyVAN). From reference ( ).

10.1128/9781555819040/fig22-1_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555819040/fig22-1.gif
Image of Figure 1
Figure 1

Screening and management of kidney transplant patients for BKV replication and polyomavirus-associated nephropathy (PyVAN). From reference ( ).

Citation: Lanfranco O, Alangaden G. 2016. Genitourinary Tract Infections, p 569-611. In Hayden R, Wolk D, Carroll K, Tang Y (ed),

Diagnostic Microbiology of the Immunocompromised Host, Second Edition

. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/microbiolspec.DMIH2-0019-2015
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint

References

/content/book/10.1128/9781555819040.chap22
1. Dantas SR,, Kuboyama RH,, Mazzali M,, Moretti ML . 2006. Nosocomial infections in renal transplant patients: risk factors and treatment implications associated with urinary tract and surgical site infections. J Hosp Infect 63 : 117–123.[CrossRef]
2. Pellé G,, Vimont S,, Levy PP,, Hertig A,, Ouali N,, Chassin C,, Arlet G,, Rondeau E,, Vandewalle A . 2007. Acute pyelonephritis represents a risk factor impairing long-term kidney graft function. Am J Transplant 7 : 899–907.[CrossRef]
3. Valera B,, Gentil MA,, Cabello V,, Fijo J,, Cordero E,, Cisneros JM . 2006. Epidemiology of urinary infections in renal transplant recipients. Transplant Proc 38 : 2414–2415.[CrossRef]
4. Chuang P,, Parikh CR,, Langone A . 2005. Urinary tract infections after renal transplantation: a retrospective review at two US transplant centers. Clin Transplant 19 : 230–235.[CrossRef]
5. Memikoğlu KO,, Keven K,, Sengül S,, Soypaçaci Z,, Ertürk S,, Erbay B . 2007. Urinary tract infections following renal transplantation: a single-center experience. Transplant Proc 39 : 3131–3134.[CrossRef]
6. Di Cocco P,, Orlando G,, Mazzotta C,, Rizza V,, D’Angelo M,, Clemente K,, Greco S,, Famulari A,, Pisani F . 2008. Incidence of urinary tract infections caused by germs resistant to antibiotics commonly used after renal transplantation. Transplant Proc 40 : 1881–1884.[CrossRef]
7. Pinheiro HS,, Mituiassu AM,, Carminatti M,, Braga AM,, Bastos MG . 2010. Urinary tract infection caused by extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing bacteria in kidney transplant patients. Transplant Proc 42 : 486–487.[CrossRef]
8. Alangaden G . 2007. Urinary tract infections in renal transplant recipients. Curr Infect Dis Rep 9 : 475–479.[CrossRef]
9. López-Medrano F,, García-Bravo M,, Morales JM,, Andrés A,, San Juan R,, Lizasoain M,, Aguado JM . 2008. Urinary tract infection due to Corynebacterium urealyticum in kidney transplant recipients: an underdiagnosed etiology for obstructive uropathy and graft dysfunction-results of a prospective cohort study. Clin Infect Dis 46 : 825–830.[CrossRef]
10. Camara B,, Mouzin M,, Ribes D,, Esposito L,, Guitard J,, Game X,, Durand D,, Rostaing L,, Kamar N . 2007. Perihepatitis and perinephric abscess due to Mycoplasma hominis in a kidney transplant patient. Exp Clin Transplant 5 : 708–709.
11. Daher EF,, da Silva GB Jr,, Barros EJ . 2013. Renal tuberculosis in the modern era. Am J Trop Med Hyg 88 : 54–64.[CrossRef]
12. Millán-Rodríguez F,, Palou J,, Bujons-Tur A,, Musquera-Felip M,, Sevilla-Cecilia C,, Serrallach-Orejas M,, Baez-Angles C,, Villavicencio-Mavrich H . 2006. Acute bacterial prostatitis: two different sub-categories according to a previous manipulation of the lower urinary tract. World J Urol 24 : 45–50.[CrossRef]
13. Etienne M,, Chavanet P,, Sibert L,, Michel F,, Levesque H,, Lorcerie B,, Doucet J,, Pfitzenmeyer P,, Caron F . 2008. Acute bacterial prostatitis: heterogeneity in diagnostic criteria and management. Retrospective multicentric analysis of 371 patients diagnosed with acute prostatitis. BMC Infect Dis 8 : 12. [CrossRef]
14. Lee LK,, Dinneen MD,, Ahmad S . 2001. The urologist and the patient infected with human immunodeficiency virus or with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. BJU Int 88 : 500–510.[CrossRef]
15. Safdar N,, Slattery WR,, Knasinski V,, Gangnon RE,, Li Z,, Pirsch JD,, Andes D . 2005. Predictors and outcomes of candiduria in renal transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis 40 : 1413–1421.[CrossRef]
16. Fisher JF,, Sobel JD,, Kauffman CA,, Newman CA . 2011. Candida urinary tract infections—treatment. Clin Infect Dis 52(Suppl 6): S457–S466.[CrossRef]
17. Mitchell TG,, Perfect JR . 1995. Cryptococcosis in the era of AIDS—100 years after the discovery of Cryptococcus neoformans . Clin Microbiol Rev 8 : 515–548.
18. Wise GJ,, Shteynshlyuger A . 2006. How to diagnose and treat fungal infections in chronic prostatitis. Curr Urol Rep 7 : 320–328.[CrossRef]
19. Paduch DA . 2007. Viral lower urinary tract infections. Curr Urol Rep 8 : 324–335.[CrossRef]
20. Randhawa P,, Ho A,, Shapiro R,, Vats A,, Swalsky P,, Finkelstein S,, Uhrmacher J,, Weck K . 2004. Correlates of quantitative measurement of BK polyomavirus (BKV) DNA with clinical course of BKV infection in renal transplant patients. J Clin Microbiol 42 : 1176–1180.[CrossRef]
21. Binet I,, Nickeleit V,, Hirsch HH,, Prince O,, Dalquen P,, Gudat F,, Mihatsch MJ,, Thiel G . 1999. Polyomavirus disease under new immunosuppressive drugs: a cause of renal graft dysfunction and graft loss. Transplantation 67 : 918–922.[CrossRef]
22. Hirsch HH . 2002. Polyomavirus BK nephropathy: a (re-)emerging complication in renal transplantation. Am J Transplant 2 : 25–30.[CrossRef]
23. Ramos E,, Drachenberg CB,, Wali R,, Hirsch HH . 2009. The decade of polyomavirus BK-associated nephropathy: state of affairs. Transplantation 87 : 621–630.[CrossRef]
24. Arthur RR,, Shah KV,, Baust SJ,, Santos GW,, Saral R . 1986. Association of BK viruria with hemorrhagic cystitis in recipients of bone marrow transplants. N Engl J Med 315 : 230–234.[CrossRef]
25. Bedi A,, Miller CB,, Hanson JL,, Goodman S,, Ambinder RF,, Charache P,, Arthur RR,, Jones RJ . 1995. Association of BK virus with failure of prophylaxis against hemorrhagic cystitis following bone marrow transplantation. J Clin Oncol 13 : 1103–1109.
26. Dropulic LK,, Jones RJ . 2008. Polyomavirus BK infection in blood and marrow transplant recipients. Bone Marrow Transplant 41 : 11–18.[CrossRef]
27. Runde V,, Ross S,, Trenschel R,, Lagemann E,, Basu O,, Renzing-Köhler K,, Schaefer UW,, Roggendorf M,, Holler E . 2001. Adenoviral infection after allogeneic stem cell transplantation (SCT): report on 130 patients from a single SCT unit involved in a prospective multi center surveillance study. Bone Marrow Transplant 28 : 51–57.[CrossRef]
28. Akiyama H,, Kurosu T,, Sakashita C,, Inoue T,, Si M,, Ohashi K,, Tanikawa S,, Sakamaki H,, Onozawa Y,, Chen Q,, Zheng H,, Kitamura T . 2001. Adenovirus is a key pathogen in hemorrhagic cystitis associated with bone marrow transplantation. Clin Infect Dis 32 : 1325–1330.[CrossRef]
29. Ito M,, Hirabayashi N,, Uno Y,, Nakayama A,, Asai J . 1991. Necrotizing tubulointerstitial nephritis associated with adenovirus infection. Hum Pathol 22 : 1225–1231.[CrossRef]
30. Florescu MC,, Miles CD,, Florescu DF . 2013. What do we know about adenovirus in renal transplantation? Nephrol Dial Transplant 28 : 2003–2010.[CrossRef]
31. Spach DH,, Bauwens JE,, Myerson D,, Mustafa MM,, Bowden RA . 1993. Cytomegalovirus-induced hemorrhagic cystitis following bone marrow transplantation. Clin Infect Dis 16 : 142–144.[CrossRef]
32. Tutuncuoglu SO,, Yanovich S,, Ozdemirli M . 2005. CMV-induced hemorrhagic cystitis as a complication of peripheral blood stem cell transplantation: case report. Bone Marrow Transplant 36 : 265–266.[CrossRef]
33. Sobel JD,, Kaye E, . 2014. Urinary tract infection, p 886–913. In Bennett JE,, Dolin R,, Blaser MJ (ed), Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. 8th ed. Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia, PA.
34. Awolude OA,, Adesina OA,, Oladokun A,, Mutiu WB,, Adewole IF . 2010. Asymptomatic bacteriuria among HIV positive pregnant women. Virulence 1 : 130–133.[CrossRef]
35. Shindel AW,, Akhavan A,, Sharlip ID . 2011. Urologic aspects of HIV infection. Med Clin North Am 95 : 129–151.[CrossRef]
36. Parasuraman R,, Julian K , AST Infectious Diseases Community of Practice . 2013. Urinary tract infections in solid organ transplantation. Am J Transplant 13(Suppl 4): 327–336.[CrossRef]
37. de Souza RM,, Olsburgh J . 2008. Urinary tract infection in the renal transplant patient. Nat Clin Pract Nephrol 4 : 252–264.[CrossRef]
38. Rabkin DG,, Stifelman MD,, Birkhoff J,, Richardson KA,, Cohen D,, Nowygrod R,, Benvenisty AI,, Hardy MA . 1998. Early catheter removal decreases incidence of urinary tract infections in renal transplant recipients. Transplant Proc 30 : 4314–4316.[CrossRef]
39. Sobel JD,, Fisher JF,, Kauffman CA,, Newman CA . 2011. Candida urinary tract infections—epidemiology. Clin Infect Dis 52(Suppl 6): S433–S436.[CrossRef]
40. Huang JJ,, Tseng CC . 2000. Emphysematous pyelonephritis: clinicoradiological classification, management, prognosis, and pathogenesis. Arch Intern Med 160 : 797–805.[CrossRef]
41. Hitti W,, Drachenberg C,, Cooper M,, Schweitzer E,, Cangro C,, Klassen D,, Haririan A . 2007. Xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis in a renal allograft associated with xanthogranulomatous diverticulitis: report of the first case and review of the literature. Nephrol Dial Transplant 22 : 3344–3347.[CrossRef]
42. Croxen MA,, Finlay BB . 2010. Molecular mechanisms of Escherichia coli pathogenicity. Nat Rev Microbiol 8 : 26–38.
43. Johnson JR,, Russo TA . 2005. Molecular epidemiology of extraintestinal pathogenic (uropathogenic) Escherichia coli . Int J Med Microbiol 295 : 383–404.[CrossRef]
44. Rice JC,, Safdar N , AST Infectious Diseases Community of Practice . 2009. Urinary tract infections in solid organ transplant recipients. Am J Transplant 9 : S267–S272.[CrossRef]
45. Merçon M,, Regua-Mangia AH,, Teixeira LM,, Irino K,, Tuboi SH,, Goncalves RT,, Santoro-Lopes G . 2010. Urinary tract infections in renal transplant recipients: virulence traits of uropathogenic Escherichia coli . Transplant Proc 42 : 483–485.[CrossRef]
46. Johnson JR,, Kuskowski MA,, Gajewski A,, Soto S,, Horcajada JP,, Jimenez de Anta MT,, Vila J . 2005. Extended virulence genotypes and phylogenetic background of Escherichia coli isolates from patients with cystitis, pyelonephritis, or prostatitis. J Infect Dis 191 : 46–50.[CrossRef]
47. Krieger JN,, Dobrindt U,, Riley DE,, Oswald E . 2011. Acute Escherichia coli prostatitis in previously health young men: bacterial virulence factors, antimicrobial resistance, and clinical outcomes. Urology 77 : 1420–1425.[CrossRef]
48. Fisher JF,, Kavanagh K,, Sobel JD,, Kauffman CA,, Newman CA . 2011. Candida urinary tract infection: pathogenesis. Clin Infect Dis 52(Suppl 6): S437–S451.[CrossRef]
49. Nicolle LE . 2001. A practical guide to antimicrobial management of complicated urinary tract infection. Drugs Aging 18 : 243–254.[CrossRef]
50. Hooton TM,, Stamm WE . 1997. Diagnosis and treatment of uncomplicated urinary tract infection. Infect Dis Clin North Am 11 : 551–581.[CrossRef]
51. Bent S,, Nallamothu BK,, Simel DL,, Fihn SD,, Saint S . 2002. Does this woman have an acute uncomplicated urinary tract infection? JAMA 287 : 2701–2710.[CrossRef]
52. Fairley KF,, Carson NE,, Gutch RC,, Leighton P,, Grounds AD,, Laird EC,, McCallum PH,, Sleeman RL,, O’Keefe CM . 1971. Site of infection in acute urinary-tract infection in general practice. Lancet 2 : 615–618.[CrossRef]
53. Gupta K,, Hooton TM,, Naber KG,, Wullt B,, Colgan R,, Miller LG,, Moran GJ,, Nicolle LE,, Raz R,, Schaeffer AJ,, Soper DE . 2011. International clinical practice guidelines for the treatment of acute uncomplicated cystitis and pyelonephritis in women: a 2010 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the European Society for Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. Clin Infect Dis 52 : e103–e120.[CrossRef]
54. Nicolle LE . 1997. Asymptomatic bacteriuria in the elderly. Infect Dis Clin North Am 11 : 647–662.[CrossRef]
55. Warren JW,, Tenney JH,, Hoopes JM,, Muncie HL,, Anthony WC . 1982. A prospective microbiologic study of bacteriuria in patients with chronic indwelling urethral catheters. J Infect Dis 146 : 719–723.[CrossRef]
56. Kincaid-Smith P,, Bullen M . 1965. Bacteriuria in pregnancy. Lancet 1 : 395–399.[CrossRef]
57. Bakke A,, Digranes A . 1991. Bacteriuria in patients treated with clean intermittent catheterization. Scand J Infect Dis 23 : 577–582.[CrossRef]
58. Zhanel GG,, Harding GK,, Nicolle LE . 1991. Asymptomatic bacteriuria in patients with diabetes mellitus. Rev Infect Dis 13 : 150–154.[CrossRef]
59. Nicolle LE,, Bradley S,, Colgan R,, Rice JC,, Schaeffer A,, Hooton TM . 2005. Infectious Diseases Society of America guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of asymptomatic bacteriuria in adults. Clin Infect Dis 40 : 643–654.[CrossRef]
60. Vasudev B,, Hariharan S,, Hussain SA,, Zhu YR,, Bresnahan BA,, Cohen EP . 2005. BK virus nephritis: risk factors, timing, and outcome in renal transplant recipients. Kidney Int 68 : 1834–1839.[CrossRef]
61. Gupta M,, Miller F,, Nord EP,, Wadhwa NK . 2003. Delayed renal allograft dysfunction and cystitis associated with human polyomavirus (BK) infection in a renal transplant recipient: a case report and review of literature. Clin Nephrol 60 : 405–414.[CrossRef]
62. Evans JK,, McOwan A,, Hillman RJ,, Forster GE . 1995. Incidence of symptomatic urinary tract infections in HIV seropositive patients and the use of cotrimoxazole as prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Genitourin Med 71 : 120–122.[CrossRef]
63. Flanigan TP,, Hogan JW,, Smith D,, Schoenbaum E,, Vlahov D,, Schuman P,, Mayer K . 1999. Self-reported bacterial infections among women with or at risk for human immunodeficiency virus infection. Clin Infect Dis 29 : 608–612.[CrossRef]
64. Park JC,, Buono D,, Smith DK,, Peipert JF,, Sobel J,, Rompalo A,, Klein RS , HIV Epidemiology Research Study (HERS) group . 2002. Urinary tract infections in women with or at risk for human immunodeficiency virus infection. Am J Obstet Gynecol 187 : 581–588.[CrossRef]
65. Ojoo J,, Paul J,, Batchelor B,, Amir M,, Kimari J,, Mwachari C,, Bwayo J,, Plummer F,, Gachihi G,, Waiyaki P,, Gilks C . 1996. Bacteriuria in a cohort of predominantly HIV-1 seropositive female commercial sex workers in Nairobi, Kenya. J Infect 33 : 33–37.[CrossRef]
66. Ezechi OC,, Gab-Okafor CV,, Oladele DA,, Kalejaiye OO,, Oke BO,, Ekama SO,, Audu RA,, Okoye RN,, Ujah IA . 2013. Prevalence and risk factors of asymptomatic bacteriuria among pregnant Nigerians infected with HIV. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 26 : 402–406.[CrossRef]
67. De Pinho AM,, Lopes GS,, Ramos-Filho CF,, Santos OR,, De Oliveira MP,, Halpern M,, Gouvea CA,, Schechter M . 1994. Urinary tract infection in men with AIDS. Genitourin Med 70 : 30–34.[CrossRef]
68. Eccles-Radtke C,, Rector TS,, Cutting A,, Drekonja DM . 2014. Urinary tract infections in male veterans with human immunodeficiency virus. Open Forum Infect Dis 1 : 1–3.[CrossRef]
69. Breyer BN,, Van den Eeden SK,, Horberg MA,, Eisenberg ML,, Deng DY,, Smith JF,, Shindel AW . 2011. HIV status is an independent risk factor for reporting lower urinary tract symptoms. J Urol 185 : 1710–1715.[CrossRef]
70. Vidal E,, Torre-Cisneros J,, Blanes M,, Montejo M,, Cervera C,, Aguado JM,, Len O,, Carratalá J,, Cordero E,, Bou G,, Muñoz P,, Ramos A,, Gurguí M,, Borrell N,, Fortún J , Spanish Network for Research in Infectious Diseases (REIPI) . 2012. Bacterial urinary tract infection after solid organ transplantation in the RESITRA cohort. Transpl Infect Dis 14 : 595–603.[CrossRef]
71. Hooton TM,, Scholes D,, Hughes JP,, Winter C,, Roberts PL,, Stapleton AE,, Stergachis A,, Stamm WE . 1996. A prospective study of risk factors for symptomatic urinary tract infection in young women. N Engl J Med 335 : 468–474.[CrossRef]
72. Alangaden GJ,, Thyagarajan R,, Gruber SA,, Morawski K,, Garnick J,, El-Amm JM,, West MS,, Sillix DH,, Chandrasekar PH,, Haririan A . 2006. Infectious complications after kidney transplantation: current epidemiology and associated risk factors. Clin Transplant 20 : 401–409.[CrossRef]
73. Säemann M,, Hörl WH . 2008. Urinary tract infection in renal transplant recipients. Eur J Clin Invest 38(Suppl 2): 58–65.[CrossRef]
74. Veroux M,, Giuffrida G,, Corona D,, Gagliano M,, Scriffignano V,, Vizcarra D,, Tallarita T,, Zerbo D,, Virgilio C,, Sciacca A,, Cappello D,, Stefani S,, Veroux P . 2008. Infective complications in renal allograft recipients: epidemiology and outcome. Transplant Proc 40 : 1873–1876.[CrossRef]
75. Goya N,, Tanabe K,, Iguchi Y,, Oshima T,, Yagisawa T,, Toma H,, Agishi T,, Ota K,, Takahashi K . 1997. Prevalence of urinary tract infection during outpatient follow-up after renal transplantation. Infection 25 : 101–105.[CrossRef]
76. Chan PC,, Cheng IK,, Wong KK,, Li MK,, Chan MK . 1990. Urinary tract infections in post-renal transplant patients. Int Urol Nephrol 22 : 389–396.[CrossRef]
77. Abbott KC,, Swanson SJ,, Richter ER,, Bohen EM,, Agodoa LY,, Peters TG,, Barbour G,, Lipnick R,, Cruess DF . 2004. Late urinary tract infection after renal transplantation in the United States. Am J Kidney Dis 44 : 353–362.[CrossRef]
78. Silva M Jr,, Marra AR,, Pereira CA,, Medina-Pestana JO,, Camargo LF . 2010. Bloodstream infection after kidney transplantation: epidemiology, microbiology, associated risk factors, and outcome. Transplantation 90 : 581–587.[CrossRef]
79. Abbott KC,, Oliver JD III,, Hypolite I,, Lepler LL,, Kirk AD,, Ko CW,, Hawkes CA,, Jones CA,, Agodoa LY . 2001. Hospitalizations for bacterial septicemia after renal transplantation in the United States. Am J Nephrol 21 : 120–127.[CrossRef]
80. Mitra S,, Alangaden GJ . 2011. Recurrent urinary tract infections in kidney transplant recipients. Curr Infect Dis Rep 13 : 579–587.[CrossRef]
81. Dupont PJ,, Psimenou E,, Lord R,, Buscombe JR,, Hilson AJ,, Sweny P . 2007. Late recurrent urinary tract infections may produce renal allograft scarring even in the absence of symptoms or vesicoureteric reflux. Transplantation 84 : 351–355.[CrossRef]
82. Kamath NS,, John GT,, Neelakantan N,, Kirubakaran MG,, Jacob CK . 2006. Acute graft pyelonephritis following renal transplantation. Transpl Infect Dis 8 : 140–147.[CrossRef]
83. Giral M,, Pascuariello G,, Karam G,, Hourmant M,, Cantarovich D,, Dantal J,, Blancho G,, Coupel S,, Josien R,, Daguin P,, Méchineau S,, Soulillou JP . 2002. Acute graft pyelonephritis and long-term kidney allograft outcome. Kidney Int 61 : 1880–1886.[CrossRef]
84. Sorto R,, Irizar SS,, Delgadillo G,, Alberú J,, Correa-Rotter R,, Morales-Buenrostro LE . 2010. Risk factors for urinary tract infections during the first year after kidney transplantation. Transplant Proc 42 : 280–281.[CrossRef]
85. Keven K,, Sahin M,, Kutlay S,, Sengul S,, Erturk S,, Ersoz S,, Erbay B . 2003. Immunoglobulin deficiency in kidney allograft recipients: comparative effects of mycophenolate mofetil and azathioprine. Transpl Infect Dis 5 : 181–186.[CrossRef]
86. Lapchik MS,, Castelo Filho A,, Pestana JO,, Silva Filho AP,, Wey SB . 1992. Risk factors for nosocomial urinary tract and postoperative wound infections in renal transplant patients: a matched-pair case-control study. J Urol 147 : 994–998.
87. van Duin D,, van Delden C , AST Infectious Diseases Community of Practice . 2013. Multidrug-resistant gram-negative bacteria infections in solid organ transplantation. Am J Transplant 13 : 31–41.[CrossRef]
88. Al-Hasan MN,, Razonable RR,, Eckel-Passow JE,, Baddour LM . 2009. Incidence rate and outcome of Gram-negative bloodstream infection in solid organ transplant recipients. Am J Transplant 9 : 835–843.[CrossRef]
89. Linares L,, Cervera C,, Cofán F,, Ricart MJ,, Esforzado N,, Torregrosa V,, Oppenheimer F,, Campistol JM,, Marco F,, Moreno A . 2007. Epidemiology and outcomes of multiple antibiotic-resistant bacterial infection in renal transplantation. Transplant Proc 39 : 2222–2224.[CrossRef]
90. Linares L,, Cervera C,, Cofán F,, Lizaso D,, Marco F,, Ricart MJ,, Esforzado N,, Oppenheimer F,, Campistol JM,, Moreno A . 2008. Risk factors for infection with extended-spectrum and AmpC beta-lactamase-producing gram-negative rods in renal transplantation. Am J Transplant 8 : 1000–1005.[CrossRef]
91. Singh N,, Gayowski T,, Rihs JD,, Wagener MM,, Marino IR . 2001. Evolving trends in multiple-antibiotic-resistant bacteria in liver transplant recipients: a longitudinal study of antimicrobial susceptibility patterns. Liver Transpl 7 : 22–26.[CrossRef]
92. Green H,, Rahamimov R,, Gafter U,, Leibovitci L,, Paul M . 2011. Antibiotic prophylaxis for urinary tract infections in renal transplant recipients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Transpl Infect Dis 13 : 441–447.[CrossRef]
93. Rafat C,, Vimont S,, Ancel PY,, Xu-Dubois YC,, Mesnard L,, Ouali N,, Denis M,, Vandewalle A,, Rondeau E,, Hertig A . 2011. Ofloxacin: new applications for the prevention of urinary tract infections in renal graft recipients. Transpl Infect Dis 13 : 344–352.[CrossRef]
94. El Amari EB,, Hadaya K,, Bühler L,, Berney T,, Rohner P,, Martin PY,, Mentha G,, van Delden C . 2011. Outcome of treated and untreated asymptomatic bacteriuria in renal transplant recipients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 26 : 4109–4114.[CrossRef]
95. Hirsch HH,, Knowles W,, Dickenmann M,, Passweg J,, Klimkait T,, Mihatsch MJ,, Steiger J . 2002. Prospective study of polyomavirus type BK replication and nephropathy in renal-transplant recipients. N Engl J Med 347 : 488–496.[CrossRef]
96. Randhawa PS,, Finkelstein S,, Scantlebury V,, Shapiro R,, Vivas C,, Jordan M,, Picken MM,, Demetris AJ . 1999. Human polyoma virus-associated interstitial nephritis in the allograft kidney. Transplantation 67 : 103–109.[CrossRef]
97. Drachenberg CB,, Papadimitriou JC . 2006. Polyomavirus-associated nephropathy: update in diagnosis. Transpl Infect Dis 8 : 68–75.[CrossRef]
98. Drachenberg CB,, Hirsch HH,, Papadimitriou JC,, Gosert R,, Wali RK,, Munivenkatappa R,, Nogueira J,, Cangro CB,, Haririan A,, Mendley S,, Ramos E . 2007. Polyomavirus BK versus JC replication and nephropathy in renal transplant recipients: a prospective evaluation. Transplantation 84 : 323–330.[CrossRef]
99. Nickeleit V,, Klimkait T,, Binet IF,, Dalquen P,, Del Zenero V,, Thiel G,, Mihatsch MJ,, Hirsch HH . 2000. Testing for polyomavirus type BK DNA in plasma to identify renal-allograft recipients with viral nephropathy. N Engl J Med 342 : 1309–1315.[CrossRef]
100. Dharnidharka VR,, Cherikh WS,, Abbott KC . 2009. An OPTN analysis of national registry data on treatment of BK virus allograft nephropathy in the United States. Transplantation 87 : 1019–1026.[CrossRef]
101. Pahari A,, Rees L . 2003. BK virus-associated renal problems—clinical implications. Pediatr Nephrol 18 : 743–748.[CrossRef]
102. Gralla J,, Huskey J,, Wiseman AC . 2012. Trends in immune function assay (ImmuKnow; Cylex™) results in the first year post-transplant and relationship to BK virus infection. Nephrol Dial Transplant 27 : 2565–2570.[CrossRef]
103. Hirsch HH,, Brennan DC,, Drachenberg CB,, Ginevri F,, Gordon J,, Limaye AP,, Mihatsch MJ,, Nickeleit V,, Ramos E,, Randhawa P,, Shapiro R,, Steiger J,, Suthanthiran M,, Trofe J . 2005. Polyomavirus-associated nephropathy in renal transplantation: interdisciplinary analyses and recommendations. Transplantation 79 : 1277–1286.[CrossRef]
104. Bressollette-Bodin C,, Coste-Burel M,, Hourmant M,, Sebille V,, Andre-Garnier E,, Imbert-Marcille BM . 2005. A prospective longitudinal study of BK virus infection in 104 renal transplant recipients. Am J Transplant 5 : 1926–1933.[CrossRef]
105. Mengel M,, Marwedel M,, Radermacher J,, Eden G,, Schwarz A,, Haller H,, Kreipe H . 2003. Incidence of polyomavirus-nephropathy in renal allografts: influence of modern immunosuppressive drugs. Nephrol Dial Transplant 18 : 1190–1196.[CrossRef]
106. Dadhania D,, Snopkowski C,, Ding R,, Muthukumar T,, Chang C,, Aull M,, Lee J,, Sharma VK,, Kapur S,, Suthanthiran M . 2008. Epidemiology of BK virus in renal allograft recipients: independent risk factors for BK virus replication. Transplantation 86 : 521–528.[CrossRef]
107. Awadalla Y,, Randhawa P,, Ruppert K,, Zeevi A,, Duquesnoy RJ . 2004. HLA mismatching increases the risk of BK virus nephropathy in renal transplant recipients. Am J Transplant 4 : 1691–1696.[CrossRef]
108. Sharif A,, Alachkar N,, Bagnasco S,, Geetha D,, Gupta G,, Womer K,, Arend L,, Racusen L,, Montgomery R,, Kraus E . 2012. Incidence and outcomes of BK virus allograft nephropathy among ABO- and HLA-incompatible kidney transplant recipients. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 7 : 1320–1327.[CrossRef]
109. Olsen GH,, Andresen PA,, Hilmarsen HT,, Bjørang O,, Scott H,, Midtvedt K,, Rinaldo CH . 2006. Genetic variability in BK Virus regulatory regions in urine and kidney biopsies from renal-transplant patients. J Med Virol 78 : 384–393.[CrossRef]
110. Gosert R,, Rinaldo CH,, Funk GA,, Egli A,, Ramos E,, Drachenberg CB,, Hirsch HH . 2008. Polyomavirus BK with rearranged noncoding control region emerge in vivo in renal transplant patients and increase viral replication and cytopathology. J Exp Med 205 : 841–852.[CrossRef]
111. Wadei HM,, Rule AD,, Lewin M,, Mahale AS,, Khamash HA,, Schwab TR,, Gloor JM,, Textor SC,, Fidler ME,, Lager DJ,, Larson TS,, Stegall MD,, Cosio FG,, Griffin MD . 2006. Kidney transplant function and histological clearance of virus following diagnosis of polyomavirus-associated nephropathy (PVAN). Am J Transplant 6 : 1025–1032.[CrossRef]
112. van der Beek MT,, Laheij AM,, Raber-Durlacher JE,, von dem Borne PA,, Wolterbeek R,, van der Blij-de Brouwer CS,, van Loveren C,, Claas EC,, Kroes AC,, de Soet JJ,, Vossen AC . 2012. Viral loads and antiviral resistance of herpesviruses and oral ulcerations in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. Bone Marrow Transplant 47 : 1222–1228.[CrossRef]
113. Morfin F,, Thouvenot D . 2003. Herpes simplex virus resistance to antiviral drugs. J Clin Virol 26 : 29–37.[CrossRef]
114. Hirsch HH,, Steiger J . 2003. Polyomavirus BK. Lancet Infect Dis 3 : 611–623.[CrossRef]
115. Azzi A,, Fanci R,, Bosi A,, Ciappi S,, Zakrzewska K,, de Santis R,, Laszlo D,, Guidi S,, Saccardi R,, Vannucchi AM . 1994. Monitoring of polyomavirus BK viruria in bone marrow transplantation patients by DNA hybridization assay and by polymerase chain reaction: an approach to assess the relationship between BK viruria and hemorrhagic cystitis. Bone Marrow Transplant 14 : 235–240.
116. Leung AY,, Yuen KY,, Kwong YL . 2005. Polyoma BK virus and haemorrhagic cystitis in haematopoietic stem cell transplantation: a changing paradigm. Bone Marrow Transplant 36 : 929–937.[CrossRef]
117. Bogdanovic G,, Priftakis P,, Giraud G,, Kuzniar M,, Ferraldeschi R,, Kokhaei P,, Mellstedt H,, Remberger M,, Ljungman P,, Winiarski J,, Dalianis T . 2004. Association between a high BK virus load in urine samples of patients with graft-versus-host disease and development of hemorrhagic cystitis after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. J Clin Microbiol 42 : 5394–5396.[CrossRef]
118. Wong AS,, Chan KH,, Cheng VC,, Yuen KY,, Kwong YL,, Leung AY . 2007. Relationship of pretransplantation polyoma BK virus serologic findings and BK viral reactivation after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Clin Infect Dis 44 : 830–837.[CrossRef]
119. Erard V,, Kim HW,, Corey L,, Limaye A,, Huang ML,, Myerson D,, Davis C,, Boeckh M . 2005. BK DNA viral load in plasma: evidence for an association with hemorrhagic cystitis in allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplant recipients. Blood 106 : 1130–1132.[CrossRef]
120. Haines HL,, Laskin BL,, Goebel J,, Davies SM,, Yin HJ,, Lawrence J,, Mehta PA,, Bleesing JJ,, Filipovich AH,, Marsh RA,, Jodele S . 2011. Blood, and not urine, BK viral load predicts renal outcome in children with hemorrhagic cystitis following hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Biol Blood Marrow Tr 17 : 1512–1519.[CrossRef]
121. Park SH,, Choi SM,, Lee DG,, Choi JH,, Yoo JH,, Kim SH,, Kim HJ,, Cho SG,, Eom KS,, Lee JW,, Min WS,, Shin WS,, Kim CC . 2009. Infectious complications associated with alemtuzumab use for allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: comparison with anti-thymocyte globulin. Transpl Infect Dis 11 : 413–423.[CrossRef]
122. Dalianis T,, Ljungman P . 2011. Full myeloablative conditioning and an unrelated HLA mismatched donor increase the risk for BK virus-positive hemorrhagic cystitis in allogeneic hematopoetic stem cell transplanted patients. Anticancer Res 31 : 939–944.
123. delaCruz J,, Pursell K . 2014. BK virus and its role in hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: evolution of a pathogen. Curr Infect Dis Rep 16 : 417. [CrossRef]
124. Shields AF,, Hackman RC,, Fife KH,, Corey L,, Meyers JD . 1985. Adenovirus infections in patients undergoing bone-marrow transplantation. N Engl J Med 312 : 529–533.[CrossRef]
125. Flomenberg P,, Babbitt J,, Drobyski WR,, Ash RC,, Carrigan DR,, Sedmak GV,, McAuliffe T,, Camitta B,, Horowitz MM,, Bunin N,, Casper JT . 1994. Increasing incidence of adenovirus disease in bone marrow transplant recipients. J Infect Dis 169 : 775–781.[CrossRef]
126. Lindemans CA,, Leen AM,, Boelens JJ . 2010. How I treat adenovirus in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. Blood 116 : 5476–5485.[CrossRef]
127. Chakrabarti S,, Mautner V,, Osman H,, Collingham KE,, Fegan CD,, Klapper PE,, Moss PA,, Milligan DW . 2002. Adenovirus infections following allogeneic stem cell transplantation: incidence and outcome in relation to graft manipulation, immunosuppression, and immune recovery. Blood 100 : 1619–1627.[CrossRef]
128. La Rosa AM,, Champlin RE,, Mirza N,, Gajewski J,, Giralt S,, Rolston KV,, Raad I,, Jacobson K,, Kontoyiannis D,, Elting L,, Whimbey E . 2001. Adenovirus infections in adult recipients of blood and marrow transplants. Clin Infect Dis 32 : 871–876.[CrossRef]
129. Robin M,, Marque-Juillet S,, Scieux C,, Peffault de Latour R,, Ferry C,, Rocha V,, Molina JM,, Bergeron A,, Devergie A,, Gluckman E,, Ribaud P,, Socié G . 2007. Disseminated adenovirus infections after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: incidence, risk factors and outcome. Haematologica 92 : 1254–1257.[CrossRef]
130. Baldwin A,, Kingman H,, Darville M,, Foot AB,, Grier D,, Cornish JM,, Goulden N,, Oakhill A,, Pamphilon DH,, Steward CG,, Marks DI . 2000. Outcome and clinical course of 100 patients with adenovirus infection following bone marrow transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 26 : 1333–1338.[CrossRef]
131. Lee YJ,, Chung D,, Xiao K,, Papadopoulos EB,, Barker JN,, Small TN,, Giralt SA,, Zheng J,, Jakubowski AA,, Papanicolaou GA . 2013. Adenovirus viremia and disease: comparison of T cell-depleted and conventional hematopoietic stem cell transplantation recipients from a single institution. Biol Blood Marrow Tr 19 : 387–392.[CrossRef]
132. Ison MG . 2006. Adenovirus infections in transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis 43 : 331–339.[CrossRef]
133. Miyamura K,, Hamaguchi M,, Taji H,, Kanie T,, Kohno A,, Tanimoto M,, Saito H,, Kojima S,, Matsuyama T,, Kitaori K,, Nagafuji K,, Sato T,, Kodera Y . 2000. Successful ribavirin therapy for severe adenovirus hemorrhagic cystitis after allogeneic marrow transplant from close HLA donors rather than distant donors. Bone Marrow Transplant 25 : 545–548.[CrossRef]
134. Kawashima A,, LeRoy AJ . 2003. Radiologic evaluation of patients with renal infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am 17 : 433–456.[CrossRef]
135. Demertzis J,, Menias CO . 2007. State of the art: imaging of renal infections. Emerg Radiol 14 : 13–22.[CrossRef]
136. Tsugaya M,, Hirao N,, Sakagami H,, Iwase Y,, Watase H,, Ohtaguro K,, Washida H . 1990. Computerized tomography in acute pyelonephritis: the clinical correlations. J Urol 144 : 611–613.
137. Arvanitis M,, Anagnostou T,, Fuchs BB,, Caliendo AM,, Mylonakis E . 2014. Molecular and nonmolecular diagnostic methods for invasive fungal infections. Clin Microbiol Rev 27 : 490–526.[CrossRef]
138. Ginocchio C,, Harris P, . 2015. Reagents, stains, media and cell cultures: virology, p 1422–1432. In Jorgensen MAPJH,, Carroll KC,, Funke G,, Landry ML,, Richter SS,, Warnock DW (ed), Manual of Clinical Microbiology. ASM Press, Washington, DC. [CrossRef]
139. Randhawa P,, Vats A,, Shapiro R . 2005. Monitoring for polyomavirus BK And JC in urine: comparison of quantitative polymerase chain reaction with urine cytology. Transplantation 79 : 984–986.[CrossRef]
140. Hirsch HH,, Randhawa P , AST Infectious Diseases Community of Practice . 2013. BK polyomavirus in solid organ transplantation. Am J Transplant 13(Suppl 4): 179–188.[CrossRef]
141. Drachenberg CB,, Papadimitriou JC,, Hirsch HH,, Wali R,, Crowder C,, Nogueira J,, Cangro CB,, Mendley S,, Mian A,, Ramos E . 2004. Histological patterns of polyomavirus nephropathy: correlation with graft outcome and viral load. Am J Transplant 4 : 2082–2092.[CrossRef]
142. Masutani K,, Shapiro R,, Basu A,, Tan H,, Wijkstrom M,, Randhawa P . 2012. The Banff 2009 Working Proposal for polyomavirus nephropathy: a critical evaluation of its utility as a determinant of clinical outcome. Am J Transplant 12 : 907–918.[CrossRef]
143. RS . 2015. B., Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 11th ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
144. Singh HK,, Reisner H,, Derebail VK,, Kozlowski T,, Nickeleit V . 2015. Polyomavirus nephropathy: quantitative urinary polyomavirus-Haufen testing accurately predicts the degree of intrarenal viral disease. Transplantation 99 : 609–615.[CrossRef]
145. Singh HK,, Andreoni KA,, Madden V,, True K,, Detwiler R,, Weck K,, Nickeleit V . 2009. Presence of urinary Haufen accurately predicts polyomavirus nephropathy. J Am Soc Nephrol 20 : 416–427.[CrossRef]
146. Baron EJ,, Miller JM,, Weinstein MP,, Richter SS,, Gilligan PH,, Thomson RB Jr,, Bourbeau P,, Carroll KC,, Kehl SC,, Dunne WM,, Robinson-Dunn B,, Schwartzman JD,, Chapin KC,, Snyder JW,, Forbes BA,, Patel R,, Rosenblatt JE,, Pritt BS . 2013. A guide to utilization of the microbiology laboratory for diagnosis of infectious diseases: 2013 recommendations by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and the American Society for Microbiology (ASM)(a). Clin Infect Dis 57 : e22–e121.[CrossRef]
147. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute . 2009. Urinalysis. Approved Guideline, CLSI document GP16-A3. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, Wayne, PA.
148. McCarter YS,, Burd EM,, Hall GS,, Zervos M, . 2009. Specimen collection transport, and work-up. In McCarter YS,, Burd EM,, Hall GS,, Zervos M,, Sharp S (ed), Cumitech 2C, Laboratory Diagnosis of Urinary Tract Infections. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
149. Blake DR,, Doherty LF . 2006. Effect of perineal cleansing on contamination rate of mid-stream urine culture. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol 19 : 31–34.[CrossRef]
150. Leisure MK,, Dudley SM,, Donowitz LG . 1993. Does a clean-catch urine sample reduce bacterial contamination? N Engl J Med 328 : 289–290.[CrossRef]
151. Doble A . 1994. Chronic prostatitis. Br J Urol 74 : 537–541.[CrossRef]
152. Krieger JN,, Nyberg L Jr,, Nickel JC . 1999. NIH consensus definition and classification of prostatitis. JAMA 282 : 236–237.[CrossRef]
153. Domingue GJ . 1998. Cryptic bacterial infection in chronic prostatitis: diagnostic and therapeutic implications. Curr Opin Urol 8 : 45–49.[CrossRef]
154. Wilson ML,, Gaido L . 2004. Laboratory diagnosis of urinary tract infections in adult patients. Clin Infect Dis 38 : 1150–1158.[CrossRef]
155. Devillé WL,, Yzermans JC,, van Duijn NP,, Bezemer PD,, van der Windt DA,, Bouter LM . 2004. The urine dipstick test useful to rule out infections. A meta-analysis of the accuracy. BMC Urol 4 : 4. [CrossRef]
156. Pappas PG . 1991. Laboratory in the diagnosis and management of urinary tract infections. Med Clin North Am 75 : 313–325.[CrossRef]
157. Gurusamy KS,, Koti R,, Toon CD,, Wilson P,, Davidson BR . 2013. Antibiotic therapy for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in non surgical wounds. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 11 : CD010427. [CrossRef]
158. Becker GJ,, Garigali G,, Fogazzi GB . 2016. Advances in urine microscopy. Am J Kidney Dis 67 : 1–11.[CrossRef]
159. Chaux C,, Crepy M,, Xueref S,, Roure C,, Gille Y,, Freydiere AM . 2002. Comparison of three chromogenic agar plates for isolation and identification of urinary tract pathogens. Clin Microbiol Infect 8 : 641–645.[CrossRef]
160. Ciragil P,, Gul M,, Aral M,, Ekerbicer H . 2006. Evaluation of a new chromogenic medium for isolation and identification of common urinary tract pathogens. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 25 : 108–111.[CrossRef]
161. D’Souza HA,, Campbell M,, Baron EJ . 2004. Practical bench comparison of BBL CHROMagar Orientation and standard two-plate media for urine cultures. J Clin Microbiol 42 : 60–64.[CrossRef]
162. Stamm WE,, Counts GW,, Running KR,, Fihn S,, Turck M,, Holmes KK . 1982. Diagnosis of coliform infection in acutely dysuric women. N Engl J Med 307 : 463–468.[CrossRef]
163. Kunin CM,, White LV,, Hua TH . 1993. A reassessment of the importance of “low-count” bacteriuria in young women with acute urinary symptoms. Ann Intern Med 119 : 454–460.[CrossRef]
164. Hooton TM,, Roberts PL,, Cox ME,, Stapleton AE . 2013. Voided midstream urine culture and acute cystitis in premenopausal women. N Engl J Med 369 : 1883–1891.[CrossRef]
165. Kotton CN,, Kumar D,, Caliendo AM,, Asberg A,, Chou S,, Danziger-Isakov L,, Humar A , Transplantation Society International CMV Consensus Group . 2013. Updated international consensus guidelines on the management of cytomegalovirus in solid-organ transplantation. Transplantation 96 : 333–360.[CrossRef]
166. Razonable RR,, Hayden RT . 2013. Clinical utility of viral load in management of cytomegalovirus infection after solid organ transplantation. Clin Microbiol Rev 26 : 703–727.[CrossRef]
167. Tomblyn M,, Chiller T,, Einsele H,, Gress R,, Sepkowitz K,, Storek J,, Wingard JR,, Young JA,, Boeckh MJ . 2009. Guidelines for preventing infectious complications among hematopoietic cell transplantation recipients: a global perspective. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 15 : 1143–1238.[CrossRef]
168. Echavarria M,, Hayden RT, . 2015. Adenoviruses , p 1769–1782. In Jorgensen MAPJH,, Carroll KC,, Funke G,, Landry ML,, Richter SS,, Warnock DW (ed), Manual of Clinical Microbiology. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
169. Bil-Lula I,, Ussowicz M,, Rybka B,, Wendycz-Domalewska D,, Ryczan R,, Gorczyńska E,, Kałwak K,, Woźniak M . 2010. Hematuria due to adenoviral infection in bone marrow transplant recipients. Transplant Proc 42 : 3729–3734.[CrossRef]
170. Hayden RT,, Gu Z,, Liu W,, Lovins R,, Kasow K,, Woodard P,, Srivastava K,, Leung W . 2015. Risk factors for hemorrhagic cystitis in pediatric allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. Transpl Infect Dis 17 : 234–241.[CrossRef]
171. Ding R,, Medeiros M,, Dadhania D,, Muthukumar T,, Kracker D,, Kong JM,, Epstein SR,, Sharma VK,, Seshan SV,, Li B,, Suthanthiran M . 2002. Noninvasive diagnosis of BK virus nephritis by measurement of messenger RNA for BK virus VP1 in urine. Transplantation 74 : 987–994.[CrossRef]
172. Wiseman AC . 2009. Polyomavirus nephropathy: a current perspective and clinical considerations. Am J Kidney Dis 54 : 131–142.[CrossRef]
173. Priftakis P,, Bogdanovic G,, Kokhaei P,, Mellstedt H,, Dalianis T . 2003. BK virus (BKV) quantification in urine samples of bone marrow transplanted patients is helpful for diagnosis of hemorrhagic cystitis, although wide individual variations exist. J Clin Virol 26 : 71–77.[CrossRef]
174. Leung AY,, Suen CK,, Lie AK,, Liang RH,, Yuen KY,, Kwong YL . 2001. Quantification of polyoma BK viruria in hemorrhagic cystitis complicating bone marrow transplantation. Blood 98 : 1971–1978.[CrossRef]
175. O’Donnell PH,, Swanson K,, Josephson MA,, Artz AS,, Parsad SD,, Ramaprasad C,, Pursell K,, Rich E,, Stock W,, van Besien K . 2009. BK virus infection is associated with hematuria and renal impairment in recipients of allogeneic hematopoetic stem cell transplants. Biol Blood Marrow Tr 15 : 1038–1048.[CrossRef]
176. Gilis L,, Morisset S,, Billaud G,, Ducastelle-Leprêtre S,, Labussière-Wallet H,, Nicolini FE,, Barraco F,, Detrait M,, Thomas X,, Tedone N,, Sobh M,, Chidiac C,, Ferry T,, Salles G,, Michallet M,, Ader F , Lyon BK Virus Study Group . 2014. High burden of BK virus-associated hemorrhagic cystitis in patients undergoing allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 49 : 664–670.[CrossRef]
177. Drew RJ,, Walsh A,, Ní Laoi B,, Conneally E,, Crowley B . 2013. BK virus (BKV) plasma dynamics in patients with BKV-associated hemorrhagic cystitis following allogeneic stem cell transplantation. Transpl Infect Dis 15 : 276–282.[CrossRef]
178. Arora N,, Novak Z,, Fowler KB,, Boppana SB,, Ross SA . 2010. Cytomegalovirus viruria and DNAemia in healthy seropositive women. J Infect Dis 202 : 1800–1803.[CrossRef]
179. Sia IG,, Patel R . 2000. New strategies for prevention and therapy of cytomegalovirus infection and disease in solid-organ transplant recipients. Clin Microbiol Rev 13 : 83–121.[CrossRef]
180. Brennan DC,, Agha I,, Bohl DL,, Schnitzler MA,, Hardinger KL,, Lockwood M,, Torrence S,, Schuessler R,, Roby T,, Gaudreault-Keener M,, Storch GA . 2005. Incidence of BK with tacrolimus versus cyclosporine and impact of preemptive immunosuppression reduction. Am J Transplant 5 : 582–594.[CrossRef]
181. Williams JW,, Javaid B,, Kadambi PV,, Gillen D,, Harland R,, Thistlewaite JR,, Garfinkel M,, Foster P,, Atwood W,, Millis JM,, Meehan SM,, Josephson MA . 2005. Leflunomide for polyomavirus type BK nephropathy. N Engl J Med 352 : 1157–1158.[CrossRef]
182. Savona MR,, Newton D,, Frame D,, Levine JE,, Mineishi S,, Kaul DR . 2007. Low-dose cidofovir treatment of BK virus-associated hemorrhagic cystitis in recipients of hematopoietic stem cell transplant. Bone Marrow Transpl 39 : 783–787.[CrossRef]
183. Orle KA,, Gates CA,, Martin DH,, Body BA,, Weiss JB . 1996. Simultaneous PCR detection of Haemophilus ducreyi, Treponema pallidum, and herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2 from genital ulcers. J Clin Microbiol 34 : 49–54.
184. Harkins AL,, Munson E . 2011. Molecular diagnosis of sexually transmitted Chlamydia trachomatis in the United States. ISRN Obstet Gynecol 2011 : 1–17.[CrossRef]
185. Papp JR,, Schachter J,, Gaydos CA,, Van Der Pol B . 2014. Recommendations for the laboratory-based detection of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae—2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 63 : 1–20.
186. Moseley RC,, Corey L,, Benjamin D,, Winter C,, Remington ML . 1981. Comparison of viral isolation, direct immunofluorescence, and indirect immunoperoxidase techniques for detection of genital herpes simplex virus infection. J Clin Microbiol 13 : 913–918.
187. Lafferty WE,, Coombs RW,, Benedetti J,, Critchlow C,, Corey L . 1987. Recurrences after oral and genital herpes simplex virus infection. Influence of site of infection and viral type. N Engl J Med 316 : 1444–1449.[CrossRef]
188. Workowski KA,, Bolan GA , Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . 2015. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. MMWR Recomm Rep 64(RR-03): 1–137.
189. Knaute DF,, Graf N,, Lautenschlager S,, Weber R,, Bosshard PP . 2012. Serological response to treatment of syphilis according to disease stage and HIV status. Clin Infect Dis 55 : 1615–1622.[CrossRef]
190. Kingston AA,, Vujevich J,, Shapiro M,, Hivnor CM,, Jukic DM,, Junkins-Hopkins JM,, Jih DM,, Kostman JR,, James WD . 2005. Seronegative secondary syphilis in 2 patients coinfected with human immunodeficiency virus. Arch Dermatol 141 : 431–433.[CrossRef]
191. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . 2007. Symptomatic early neurosyphilis among HIV-positive men who have sex with men-four cities, United States, January 2002-June 2004. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 56 : 625–628.
192. Ghanem KG,, Erbelding EJ,, Wiener ZS,, Rompalo AM . 2007. Serological response to syphilis treatment in HIV-positive and HIV-negative patients attending sexually transmitted diseases clinics. Sex Transm Infect 83 : 97–101.[CrossRef]
193. Manavi K,, McDonald A,, Al-Sharqui A . 2007. Plasma lopinavir trough levels in a group of pregnant women on lopinavir, ritonavir, zidovudine, and lamivudine. AIDS 21 : 643–645.[CrossRef]
194. González-López JJ,, Guerrero ML,, Luján R,, Tostado SF,, de Górgolas M,, Requena L . 2009. Factors determining serologic response to treatment in patients with syphilis. Clin Infect Dis 49 : 1505–1511.[CrossRef]
195. Mujugira A,, Magaret AS,, Celum C,, Baeten JM,, Lingappa JR,, Morrow RA,, Fife KH,, Delany-Moretlwe S,, de Bruyn G,, Bukusi EA,, Karita E,, Kapiga S,, Corey L,, Wald A , Partners in Prevention HSV/HIV Transmission Study Team . 2013. Daily acyclovir to decrease herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) transmission from HSV-2/HIV-1 coinfected persons: a randomized controlled trial. J Infect Dis 208 : 1366–1374.[CrossRef]
196. DeJesus E,, Wald A,, Warren T,, Schacker TW,, Trottier S,, Shahmanesh M,, Hill JL,, Brennan CA , Valacyclovir International HSV Study Group . 2003. Valacyclovir for the suppression of recurrent genital herpes in human immunodeficiency virus-infected subjects. J Infect Dis 188 : 1009–1016.[CrossRef]
197. Reyes M,, Shaik NS,, Graber JM,, Nisenbaum R,, Wetherall NT,, Fukuda K,, Reeves WC , Task Force on Herpes Simplex Virus Resistance . 2003. Acyclovir-resistant genital herpes among persons attending sexually transmitted disease and human immunodeficiency virus clinics. Arch Intern Med 163 : 76–80.[CrossRef]
198. Levin MJ,, Bacon TH,, Leary JJ . 2004. Resistance of herpes simplex virus infections to nucleoside analogues in HIV-infected patients. Clin Infect Dis 39(Suppl 5): S248–S257.[CrossRef]
199. Erard V,, Wald A,, Corey L,, Leisenring WM,, Boeckh M . 2007. Use of long-term suppressive acyclovir after hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation: impact on herpes simplex virus (HSV) disease and drug-resistant HSV disease. J Infect Dis 196 : 266–270.[CrossRef]
200. Piret J,, Boivin G . 2011. Resistance of herpes simplex viruses to nucleoside analogues: mechanisms, prevalence, and management. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 55 : 459–472.[CrossRef]