Eastern equine encephalitis virus
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Chikungunya Virus: Current Perspectives on a Reemerging Virus
- Authors: Clayton R. Morrison, Kenneth S. Plante, Mark T. Heise
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Citation: Morrison C, Plante K, Heise M. 2016. Chikungunya virus: current perspectives on a reemerging virus. 4(3): doi:10.1128/microbiolspec.EI10-0017-2016
- DOI 10.1128/microbiolspec.EI10-0017-2016
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Abstract:
Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is a mosquito-borne alphavirus in the family Togaviridae that causes outbreaks of debilitating acute and chronic arthralgia in humans. Although historically associated with localized outbreaks in Africa and Asia, recent epidemics in the Indian Ocean region and the Americas have led to the recognition that CHIKV is capable of moving into previously unaffected areas and causing significant levels of human suffering. The severity of CHIKV rheumatic disease, which can severely impact life quality of infected individuals for weeks, months, or even years, combined with the explosive nature of CHIKV outbreaks and its demonstrated ability to quickly spread into new regions, has led to renewed interest in developing strategies for the prevention or treatment of CHIKV-induced disease. Therefore, this chapter briefly discusses the biology of CHIKV and the factors contributing to CHIKV dissemination, while also discussing the pathogenesis of CHIKV-induced disease and summarizing the status of efforts to develop safe and effective therapies and vaccines against CHIKV and related viruses.
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Molecular Approaches to the Diagnosis of Meningitis and Encephalitis
- Authors: Karen C. Bloch, Yi-Wei Tang
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Source: Molecular Microbiology , pp 767-784
Publication Date :
January 2011
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Abstract:
This chapter reviews various diagnostic tests available for central nervous system (CNS) infections and provides a detailed discussion of specific molecular approaches to the most common organisms causing meningitis and encephalitis in the United States. A vast array of organisms have been associated with encephalitis, including bacteria, fungi, viruses, and protozoa. Just as meningitis and encephalitis localize to distinct compartments of the CNS, the pathogens causing these two syndromes differ, and the respective microbiologies of meningitis and encephalitis are discussed separately. While the chapter focuses on the use of molecular assays for diagnosis of CNS infection, traditional microbiological diagnostic approaches continue to play an important role in pathogen identification and are complementary to nucleic acid amplification techniques. A DNA probe array has been developed for the simultaneous identification of herpesviruses, enteroviruses, and flaviviruses after several PCR amplifications. Nucleic acid amplification techniques have markedly improved the identification of CNS infections caused by viral and fastidious bacterial pathogens. Molecular techniques such as PCR allow rapid diagnosis, with consequent improvement of outcomes and cost savings. Results of molecular diagnostic testing for CNS infections must be interpreted in the context of the individual patient presentation and clinical illness, and close cooperation between the laboratory and the clinician is required for optimal use of these technologies.
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Index
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Source: Molecular Microbiology
Publication Date :
January 2011
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No descriptions available.
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Overview of Viral Pathogens
- Authors: Jonathan W. Yewdell, Jack R. Bennink
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Source: The Immune Response to Infection , pp 133-141
Publication Date :
January 2011
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Abstract:
Viruses exhibit an extremely high mutation rate relative to their hosts, and are constantly changing genetically, with the consequence that their host range is in constant flux. Viruses are important vectors for vaccines against viral pathogens and nonviral pathogens and neoplasia. The plan of coordinated gene expression is based on genome replication, and viral genes can be classified as early (pre-genome replication) versus late (post-genome replication). The replication of RNA viruses results in the presence of unusually high amounts of double-stranded RNA in the cytoplasm. Viral replication of hepatocytes appears to be innocuous, with the damage coming over many years from virus-specific CD8+ T-cells that infiltrate the liver and destroy infected cells. The innate immune system has nearly complete responsibility for controlling infections for the first 3 to 5 days after infection with an infectious agent that the host has not previously experienced. Perhaps this is sufficient to completely contain low-level infections with some viruses, but for more serious threats the adaptive immune system must be mobilized to contain and clear the infection. The adaptive immune system has a variety of effector mechanisms for this purpose, all based on the specificity of antibodies and T-cell receptors for viral antigens. The genes encoding these remarkable molecules are the only genes in vertebrates that are routinely subject to somatic mutation and rearrangement. This enables the immune system to keep pace with genetic variability of viruses (and other pathogens), maintaining the capacity to respond specifically to virtually any virusencoded protein.
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Index
- Publication Date : January 2009
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No descriptions available.
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Alphaviruses
- Authors: David W. Smith, John S. Mackenzie, Scott C. Weaver
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Source: Clinical Virology, Third Edition , pp 1241-1274
Publication Date :
January 2009
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Abstract:
The alphaviruses are principally mosquito-borne, positive-strand RNA viruses in the family Togaviridae that exhibit a broad range of pathogenicity in humans and animals. The replication complexes of alphaviruses are associated with cytoplasmic membranes, and the main determinant of membrane attachment seems to be nsP1, which is hydrophobically modified by palmitoylation of cysteine residues. In humans, an age-dependent susceptibility of infants and the elderly to central nervous system (CNS) infection has been observed epidemiologically, although its pathogenesis has not been elucidated. Immature mouse neurons infected with Sindbis Virus (SINV) or Semliki Forest Virus (SFV) die of caspase-dependent apoptosis, while mature neurons survive by producing factors inhibiting virus-induced apoptosis. Apoptosis is induced at the time of alphavirus fusion with the cell membrane, and virus replication is not required. Mayaro virus (MAYV) is the principal New World representative of alphaviruses within the SFV complex. The epidemiological pattern is explained by the forest cycle of viral transmission, probably between Hemagogus mosquitoes and wild vertebrates, including monkeys and marmosets, analogous to the sylvatic cycle of yellow fever. The majority of infections with the arthritogenic alphaviruses are benign but temporarily debilitating. Barmah Forest virus (BFV), named after the site in northern Victoria where it was first isolated from Culex annulirostris mosquitoes, is antigenically distinct from other alphaviruses, including River virus (RRV) and SINV, that are also found in Australia. Alphaviruses principally are maintained in zoonotic transmission cycles in natural habitats.
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Index
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Source: Clinical Virology, Third Edition
Publication Date :
January 2009
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No descriptions available.
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Application of Microbial Source Tracking to Human Health and National Security
- Authors: Cindy H. Nakatsu, Peter T. Pesenti, Albert Rhodes
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Source: Microbial Source Tracking , pp 211-234
Publication Date :
January 2007
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Abstract:
Microbial source tracking (MST), the determination of a source of microorganisms into an environment, is a phrase that has been used by various microbiology disciplines. This chapter discusses some of the research and development efforts in bio-forensic technologies underway in the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Science and Technology Directorate. The chapter provides examples of some outbreaks that occurred and the responses by various relevant groups. A number of natural disease outbreaks have tested the readiness of the health care and political communities to respond and quickly and effectively manage them. A few recent outbreaks that can serve as examples are those of Sin Nombre hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, West Nile disease, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), United Kingdom foot-and-mouth disease, Asian soybean rust, and avian influenza. Anthrax is caused by the gram-positive endospore-forming bacterium Bacillus anthracis. It has a long history as a human pathogen, and several authorities speculate that it was the cause of the sixth Egyptian plague recorded in the book of Genesis. There is opportunity for all those interested ultimately in human health safety, whether they are directly involved in issues related to human disease, plant disease, animal disease, water quality, air quality, soil quality, or food safety, to join their resources. It is the combined knowledge of these fields that will allow the most efficient approach for national security.
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Viral Agents of Human Disease: Biosafety Concerns
- Authors: Jason Paragas, Timothy P. Endy
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Source: Biological Safety , pp 179-207
Publication Date :
January 2006
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Abstract:
The majority of viral agents in an early survey that documented 222 viral infections were accounted for by the viruses causing YF, Rift Valley fever (RVF), Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis (VEE) and lymphocytic choriomeningitis (LCM). Viruses are classified based on the type and organization of the viral genome (double-stranded DNA, single-stranded DNA, RNA and DNA reverse transcribing, double-stranded RNA, negative-sense single-stranded RNA, positive-sense single-stranded RNA, and subviral agents), the strategy of viral replication, and the structure of the virion. Arboviruses cause severe human disease, have wide geographic distribution, and have emerged as major pathogens. Epidemiological data suggest that there are serotype differences among the dengue viruses in their ability to produce large outbreaks of human disease and in their ability to produce severe clinical disease. This chapter talks about clinical manifestation of viral disease. The Togaviridae have been responsible for over 253 reported laboratory-acquired infections (LAIs) and six deaths as documented by laboratory surveys and demonstrate the propensity of these viruses to aerosolize and cause severe infection. Interferon alfacon-1 was evaluated in severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) virus-infected patients in a pilot experiment. Other type 1 interferons have been evaluated in experimentally infected nonhuman primates and tissue culture models of SARS-CoV infection. These studies have suggested efficacy, but to date there are no studies demonstrating efficacy in humans. The current recommendations focus on supportive care and containment of infected patients. Postaccident management of a viral exposure should be part of a carefully planned contingency that is specific for each laboratory.
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Packing and Shipping Biological Materials
- Authors: Larry D. Gray, James W. Snyder
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Source: Biological Safety , pp 383-401
Publication Date :
January 2006
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Abstract:
This chapter provides practical guidance to facilitate compliance with current national and international regulations that govern the packing and shipping of hazardous materials and dangerous goods. Topics in this chapter include terminology, classification and naming of diagnostic specimens and infectious substances, marking and labeling packages, packaging material, documentation, training and certification of personnel, practical suggestions for classifying diagnostic specimens and infectious substances, and resources for additional information. Medical waste which is reasonably believed to have a low probability of containing infectious substances must be packed and shipped as Medical Waste. Department of Transportation (DOT) regulations, International Air Transport Association (IATA) requirements, and IATA packing instructions (PI) describe the minimum standards for the safe transport of various biological materials. The marking and labeling on the outer container communicate essential information regarding the shipper and consignee of the package, the nature and weight of the contents of the package, the potential hazard of the substance, how the substance is packed, and information to be used in case of an emergency. There are several simple but extremely important points which must be regularly and strongly emphasized to persons who pack and ship diagnostic specimens and infectious substances.
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Human Work
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Source: Exposure , pp 247-302
Publication Date :
January 2006
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Abstract:
This chapter focuses discusses occupational groups and examples of work-related infections. The occupations discussed are construction and mining, manufacture and maintenance, military, police and guard, farm, forest, forest, herd and abattoir, cooking and catering, health and laboratory, cleaning, garbage and waste, classroom, clerk and store, and transportation. Occupational infections are acquired at the workplace or during work time. A link with work is supported by (i) compatible exposure (type and intensity), (ii) compatible incubation period and manifestations, (iii) infections significantly more prevalent in workers than controls or populations of corresponding age, and (iv) recovery of identical agent strains from humans and the workplace. Exposure history should include current and lifetime workplaces; hazards on the job, including from outdoor and indoor activities and contacts with animals, plants, foods, and people; absenteeism; and preventive measures. Vaccination and exposure prevention can reduce occupational infection risks such as influenza (vaccination), legionellosis (ventilation), tuberculosis (rapid case finding), diarrhea (hand hygiene), pyodermia (showers), HIV (education), and malaria (mosquito proofing and chemoprophylaxis).
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Domestic Mammals
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Source: Exposure , pp 13-36
Publication Date :
January 2006
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Domesticated mammals include dogs, cats, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, donkeys, and camels. Agents are acquired from domestic animals by contact, ingestion, inhalation, or inoculation. Some agents are host specific and do not readily cross species, in particular, some zoonotic viruses. Other agents have a broader host range, for instance, Lyssavirus, Brucella, Francisella, Salmonella, microsporidia, and Toxoplasma. In rare instances of species jumps from mammals to receptive humans, severe (virgin territory) epidemics can result. Examples include human immunodeficiency virus, Henipavirus, and severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus. This chapter talks about the various types of infections spread by dogs, cats, domestic bovids, suids, equids, and camelids.
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Genera A to Z
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Source: Exposure , pp 499-590
Publication Date :
January 2006
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This chapter provides entries that typically describe the modes of spread or acquisition (by droplet-air, by feces-food, from (in)vertebrates, from the environment, or by skin-blood), risks, clinical impact (reported cases, rates per 105 population), outbreaks, and control or preventive measures for many genera. Acquisition is from inhalation or trauma. Absidia corymbifera can colonize hospitalized patients and cause invasive disease (zygomycosis) in patients with neutropenia, diabetes, or other immune impairments. Nosocomial outbreaks are a threat, including in the intensive care unit, and from hands or machines. Anaplasma spp. are gram-negative, intracellular, tick-borne ancestral bacteria of mammals having undergone several taxonomic revisions. In Perth, Australia, reduced use of third generation cephalosporins paralleled decreasing Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD) rates per 1,000 discharges from 2-3 in 1993-1998 to ~1 in 2000. Some infections seem self-limited, but, in general, growth is relentlessly progressive, cancerlike. There are four antigenically and genetically different types parainfluenzavirus from two genera: PIV1 and PIV3 from Respirovirus, and PIV2 and PIV4 from Rubulavirus. Of ~70 species in 17 genera mainly Linguatula serrata and Armillifer armillatus are reported in humans. Treatment options include third generation or extended-spectrum cephalosporins. Aerosols are generated in the throat and from skin lesions. Seronegative pregnant women, other adults, and hosts with impaired immunity are susceptible to complications.
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Wild Vertebrates
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Source: Exposure , pp 37-63
Publication Date :
January 2006
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This chapter focuses on wild vertebrates which include carnivores, rodents, lagomorphs, primates, bats, birds, fish, reptiles and amphibians. Global trade, hunting safaris, sileage feeding, and habitat reduction increase chances of encounters with wild vertebrates, infections that cross from wildlife to livestock (e.g., Mycobacterium bovis), and jumps of agents across species to humans, e.g., human immunodeficiency virus (from primates in Africa), monkeypox virus (from Gambian giant rats imported into the United States), and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) (from carnivores in China). By habitat and invertebrate vector, wild herbivores maintain zoonotic viruses, bacteria, and protozoa. In the African rain forest, hunters handling dead duikers (Cephalophus, a small forest herbivore) are suspected of triggering infection chains and outbreaks. In Africa and Southwest Asia, hyraxes (Procavia and Heterohyrax) are natural hosts of Leishmania aethiopica. Transmissible mink encephalopathy is sporadically diagnosed in farmed mink (Mustela vison). Seroreactivity in carnivores may merely reflect past exposure to arthropod-borne viruses. Skunks, weasles, raccoons, and red and gray foxes are presumed reservoir hosts of Powassan virus. Cryptosporidium muris infects mice and other rodents. Viruses reported in laboratory rodents include cytomegalovirus and ectromelia virus. Rodents in Africa, including squirrels (Funisciurus and Heliosciurus) and Gambian rats (Cricetomys emini), are likely reservoirs of Monkeypox virus (MPXV). The mammalian order Lagomorpha includes hares and rabbits (Leporidae) and pikas (Ochotonidae). Bordetella bronchiseptica and Pasteurella multocida commonly colonize the upper respiratory tract of laboratory and wild lagomorphs. Infections in humans can result from handling living or dead animals.
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Natural Environments
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Source: Exposure , pp 89-124
Publication Date :
January 2006
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This chapter focuses on the infections generated through natural environments such us marine habitats, freshwater habitats and floods, soil, plants, terrestrial biomes, dust, winds, and seasons. Agents include raw sewage and farm waste that flows into coastal waters pollutes beaches, lagoons, and life at sea. Coasts can be sources of toxic algal blooms, polluted seafoods and beach sands, and infections in humans. The concentration of enteric agents in freshwater varies seasonally, with a low in winter. Soil is a reservoir for microorganisms and macroorganisms, such as slugs, nematodes, and arthropods. Broadly grouped biomes are the topic of this chapter: tropical forests, other woodlands, grasslands, islands, arid lands, desert oases, barren lands (highlands and Arctic tundra), and caves. Respiratory agents from dust include viruses and bacteria, but mainly fungi. Infections out of season are suspicious of importation by regional or international travel, incipient outbreaks, or intentional release. Human activities vary with seasons, confounding climate effects on infectious disease transmission. Rains significantly affect environmental conditions for bacteria, helminths, and snails.
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Viruses
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Source: A Clinician's Dictionary of Pathogenic Microorganisms , pp 237-273
Publication Date :
January 2004
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This last section of the book, A Clinician’s Dictionary of Pathogenic Microorganisms presents a list of viruses and information on each virus. This catalog serves as a “quick reference,” a starting place to gain an understanding of the significance of the recovery of various microbes from human clinical specimens. This dictionary will help increase the understanding of microbial pathogens by practicing clinicians, house officers, students, epidemiologists, infection control practitioners, and other allied health professionals.
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Color Plates
- Publication Date : January 2002
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No descriptions available.
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Index
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Source: Emerging Diseases of Animals
Publication Date :
January 2000
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No descriptions available.
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Host-Parasite Relationships in Microsporidiosis:Animal Models and Immunology
- Authors: Elizabeth S. Didier, G. Todd Bessinger
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Source: The Microsporidia and Microsporidiosis , pp 225-257
Publication Date :
January 1999
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This chapter describes the host-parasite relationships in animals with microsporidiosis and how they relate to microsporidian infections in humans. The majority of immunologically competent hosts who became infected with microsporidia (e.g., rabbits and mice) developed chronic and persistent infections with few clinical signs of disease. At least three levels or stages of defense mechanisms are expressed to prevent or control infection with most microorganisms. These are innate resistance, early induced responses, and adapted immune responses. The majority of the microsporidian spores appeared to be destroyed after phagocytosis, although some microsporidia taken up by phagocytosis had extruded their polar filaments into the cytoplasm of the macrophage. Microsporidia that infect mammals often persist in the face of innate resistance, early induced response, and adapted immune response mechanisms. The clinical manifestations of microsporidiosis in animals, however, have been highly predictive of the disease in humans, and a competent immune system has been shown to be important in preventing lethal disease. A balanced host-parasite relationship developed in many animals with microsporidiosis that displayed few clinical signs of disease yet carried persistent infections. A better understanding of the immune responses that establish a balanced host-parasite relationship in animals will likely prove beneficial in understanding the immunology of microsporidiosis in humans and in developing immunotherapeutic and chemotherapeutic strategies that can be applied to microsporidiosis.