1887

Chapter 4 : Epstein-Barr Virus and Human Herpesvirus 8

Authors: David T. Rowe1, Frank J. Jenkins2, Heather R. Hensler3
VIEW AFFILIATIONS HIDE AFFILIATIONS
Affiliations: 1: Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213; 2: Departments of Pathology and Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213; 3: Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213
Content Type: Monograph
Publication Year: 2009

Category: Clinical Microbiology

MyBook is a cheap paperback edition of the original book and will be sold at uniform, low price.

Preview this chapter:
Preview Magnify
Zoom in
Zoomout

Epstein-Barr Virus and Human Herpesvirus 8, Page 1 of 2

| /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555815455/9781555813970_Chap04-1.gif /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555815455/9781555813970_Chap04-2.gif

Abstract:

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) or human herpesvirus 4 (HHV-4) and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated virus (KSHV or HHV-8) are distantly related gammaherpesviruses, both of which have associations with cancer in humans. Developments in nucleic acid detection techniques have brought new diagnostic capabilities to bear, revealing new associations and activities of these viruses in the setting of immunosuppression. In this chapter, the authors review these disease associations and the techniques that are currently being used to diagnose EBV and KSHV infections. Therefore, diagnostic approaches to EBV infection rely mainly on detecting serologic responses to classical EBV antigens and more recently, on nucleic acid amplification and quantitation techniques. EBV serology is based on detecting humoral responses to the following three classes of antigen: viral capsid antigen (VCA), early antigen (EA), and Epstein-Barr nuclear antigen (EBNA). The major concern with using detection of viral DNA as a marker of viral infection is an apparent lack of sensitivity and indecision on which tissue type is best suited for detection of viral DNA. In summary, serological assays are the best method for determining HHV-8 infection, and assays designed to detect lytic cycle proteins, especially lytic immunofluorescence assays (IFAs), are the most sensitive assays currently available.

Citation: Rowe D, Jenkins F, Hensler H. 2009. Epstein-Barr Virus and Human Herpesvirus 8, p 91-111. In Hayden R, Carroll K, Tang Y, Wolk D (ed), Diagnostic Microbiology of the Immunocompromised Host. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815455.ch4

Key Concept Ranking

Nucleic Acid Amplification Techniques
0.43894064
0.43894064
Highlighted Text: Show | Hide
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

/content/book/10.1128/9781555815455.ch04
1. Albrecht, D.,, T. Meyer,, T. Lorenzen,, A. Stoehr,, R. Arndt, and, A. Plettenberg. 2004. Epidemiology of HHV-8 infection in HIV-positive patients with and without Kaposi sarcoma: diagnostic relevance of serology and PCR. J. Clin. Virol. 30: 145– 149.
2. Alexander, F.,, C. P. Daniel,, A. A. Armstrong,, D. A. Clark,, D. E. Onions,, R. A. Cartwright, and, R. F. Jarrett. 1995. Case clustering, Epstein-Barr virus Reed-Sternberg cell status and herpes virus serology in Hodgkin’s disease: results of a case-control study. Eur. J. Cancer 31: 1479– 1486.
3. Andreoni, M.,, D. Goletti,, P. Pezzotti,, A. Pozzetto,, P. Monini,, L. Sarmati,, F. Farchi,, G. Tisone,, A. Piazza,, F. Pisani,, M. Angelico,, P. Leone,, F. Citterio,, B. Ensoli, and, G. Rezza. 2001. Prevalence, incidence and correlates of HHV-8/KSHV infection and Kaposi’s sarcoma in renal and liver transplant recipients. J. Infect. 43: 195– 199.
4. Andreoni, M.,, L. Sarmati,, E. Nicastri,, G. El Sawaf,, M. El Zalabani,, I. Uccella,, R. Bugarini,, S. G. Parisi, and, G. Rezza. 2002. Primary human herpesvirus 8 infection in immunocompetent children. JAMA 287: 1295– 1300.
5. Arber, D. A. M. D.,, L. M. M. D. Weiss,, P. F. M. D. Albujar,, Y.-Y. B. S. Chen, and, E. S. M. D. Jaffe. 1993. Nasal lymphomas in Peru: high incidence of T-cell immunophenotype and Epstein-Barr virus infection. Am. J. Surg. Pathol. 17: 392– 399.
6. Aris, R. M.,, D. M. Maia,, I. P. Neuringer,, K. Gott,, S. Kiley,, K. Gertis, and, J. Handy. 1996. Post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disorder in the Epstein-Barr virus-native lung transplant recipient. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 154: 1712.
7. Armitage, J. M.,, R. L. Kormos,, R. S. Stuart,, F. J. Fricker,, B. P. Griffith,, M. Nalesnik,, R. L. Hardesty, and, J. S. Dummer. 1991. Posttransplant lymphoproliferative disease in thoracic organ transplant patients: ten years of cyclosporine-based immunosuppression. J. Heart Lung Transplant. 10: 877.
8. Arvanitakis, L.,, E. A. Mesri,, R. G. Nador,, J. W. Said,, A. S. Asch,, D. M. Knowles, and, E. Cesarman. 1996. Establishment and characterization of a primary effusion (body cavitybased) lymphoma cell line (BC-3) harboring Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV/HHV-8) in the absence of Epstein-Barr virus. Blood 88: 2648– 2654.
9. Au, W.-Y.,, A. Pang,, C. Choy,, C.-S. Chim, and, Y.-L. Kwong. 2004. Quantification of circulating Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) DNA in the diagnosis and monitoring of natural killer cell and EBV-positive lymphomas in immunocompetent patients. Blood 104: 243– 249.
10. Bakker, N. A.,, G. W. van Imhoff,, E. A. M. Verschuuren, and, W. J. van Son. 2007. Presentation and early detection of post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder after solid organ transplantation. Transpl. Int. 20: 207– 218.
11. Balandraud, N.,, J. Roudier, and, C. Roudier. 2004. Epstein-Barr virus and rheumatoid arthritis. Autoimmun. Rev. 3: 362.
12. Balandraud, N. I. A.,, H. Sovran,, B. Mugnier,, D. Reviron, and, J. Roudier. 2003. Epstein-Barr virus load in the peripheral blood of patients with rheumatoid arthritis, accurate quantification using real time polymerase chain reaction. Arthritis Rheum. 48: 1223– 1228.
13. Balfour, H. H., Jr.,, C. J. Holman,, K. M. Hokanson,, M. M. Lelonek,, J. E. Giesbrecht,, D. R. White,, D. O. Schmeling,, C.-H. Webb,, W. Cavert,, D. H. Wang, and, R. C. Brundage. 2005. A prospective clinical study of Epstein-Barr virus and host interactions during acute infectious mononucleosis. J. Infect. Dis. 192: 1505– 1512.
14. Barozzi, P.,, M. Luppi,, F. Facchetti,, C. Mecucci,, M. Alu,, R. Sarid,, V. Rasini,, L. Ravazzini,, E. Rossi,, S. Festa,, B. Crescenzi,, D. G. Wolf,, T. F. Schulz, and, G. Torelli. 2003. Post-transplant Kaposi sarcoma originates from the seeding of donorderived progenitors. Nat. Med. 9: 554– 561.
15. Besson, C.,, C. Amiel,, C. Le-Pendeven,, P. Brice,, C. Ferme,, P. Carde,, O. Hermine,, M. Raphael,, L. Abel, and, J.-C. Nicolas. 2006. Positive correlation between Epstein-Barr virus viral load and antiviral capsid immunoglobulin G titers determined for Hodgkin’s lymphoma patients and their relatives. J. Clin. Microbiol. 44: 47– 50.
16. Biggar, R. J.,, E. A. Engels,, D. Whitby,, D. H. Kedes, and, J. J. Goedert. 2003. Antibody reactivity to latent and lytic antigens to human herpesvirus-8 in longitudinally followed homosexual men. J. Infect. Dis. 187: 12– 18.
17. Blaschke, S.,, G. Schwarz,, D. Moneke,, L. Binder,, G. Muller, and, M. Reuss-Borst. 2000. Epstein-Barr virus infection in peripheral blood mononuclear cells, synovial fluid cells, and synovial membranes of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. J. Rheumatol. 27: 866– 873.
18. Blauvelt, A.,, S. Sei,, P. M. Cook,, T. F. Schulz, and, K. T. Jeang. 1997. Human herpesvirus 8 infection occurs following adolescence in the United States. J. Infect. Dis. 176: 771– 774.
19. Bonnet, F.,, A. C. Jouvencel,, M. Parrens,, M. J. Leon,, E. Cotto,, I. Garrigue,, P. Morlat,, J. Beylot,, H. Fleury, and, M. E. Lafon. 2006. A longitudinal and prospective study of Epstein-Barr virus load in AIDS-related non-Hodgkin lymphoma. J. Clin. Virol. 36: 258– 263.
20. Boshoff, C.,, S. J. Gao,, L. E. Healy,, S. Matthews,, A. J. Thomas,, L. Coignet,, R. A. Warnke,, J. A. Strauchen,, E. Matutes,, O. W. Kamel,, P. S. Moore,, R. A. Weiss, and, Y. Chang. 1998. Establishing a KSHV+ cell line (BCP-1) from peripheral blood and characterizing its growth in Nod/SCID mice. Blood 91: 1671– 1679.
21. Bourgault, I.,, A. Gomez,, E. Gomard, and, J. P. Levy. 1991. Limiting-dilution analysis of the HLA restriction of anti-Epstein-Barr virus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 84: 501– 507.
22. Broccolo, F.,, G. Locatelli,, L. Sarmati,, S. Piergiovanni,, F. Veglia,, M. Andreoni,, S. Butto,, B. Ensoli,, P. Lusso, and, M. S. Malnati. 2002. Calibrated real-time PCR assay for quantitation of human herpesvirus 8 DNA in biological fluids. J. Clin. Microbiol. 40: 4652– 4658.
23. Brown, E. E.,, D. Fallin,, I. Ruczinski,, A. Hutchinson,, B. Staats,, F. Vitale,, C. Lauria,, D. Serraino,, G. Rezza,, G. Mbisa,, D. Whitby,, A. Messina,, J. J. Goedert, and, S. J. Chanock. 2006. Associations of classic Kaposi sarcoma with common variants in genes that modulate host immunity. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 15: 926– 934.
24. Brown, E. E.,, D. Whitby,, F. Vitale,, P. C. Fei,, C. Del Carpio,, V. Marshall,, A. J. Alberg,, D. Serraino,, A. Messina,, L. Gafa, and, J. J. Goedert. 2005. Correlates of human herpesvirus-8 DNA detection among adults in Italy without Kaposi sarcoma. Int. J. Epidemiol. 34: 1110– 1117.
25. Bruu, A. L.,, R. Hjetland,, E. Holter,, L. Mortensen,, O. Natas,, W. Petterson,, A. G. Skar,, T. Skarpaas,, T. Tjade, and, B. Asjo. 2000. Evaluation of 12 commercial tests for detection of Epstein-Barr virus-specific and heterophilic antibodies. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 7: 451– 456.
26. Buisson, M.,, B. Fleurent,, M. Mak,, P. Morand,, L. Chan,, A. Ng,, M. Guan,, D. Chin, and, J. M. Seigneurin. 1999. Novel immunoblot assay using four recombinant antigens for diagnosis of Epstein-Barr virus primary infection and reactivation. J. Clin. Microbiol. 37: 2709– 2714.
27. Capello, D.,, D. Rossi, and, G. Gaidano. 2005. Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders: molecular basis of disease histogenesis and pathogenesis. Hematol. Oncol. 23: 61– 67.
28. Carbone, A.,, and A. Gloghini. 2005. AIDS-related lymphomas: from pathogenesis to pathology. Br. J. Haematol. 130: 662– 670.
29. Carpentier L.,, B. Tapiero,, F. Alvarez,, C. Viau, and, C. Alfieri. 2003. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) early-antigen serologic testing in conjunction with peripheral blood EBV DNA load as a marker for risk of posttransplantation lymphoproliferative disease. J. Infect. Dis. 188: 1853– 1864.
30. Casper, C.,, E. Krantz,, H. Taylor,, J. Dalessio,, D. Carrell,, A. Wald,, L. Corey, and, R. Ashley. 2002. Assessment of a combined testing strategy for detection of antibodies to human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8) in persons with Kaposi’s sarcoma, persons with asymptomatic HHV-8 infection, and persons at low risk for HHV-8 infection. J. Clin. Microbiol. 40: 3822– 3825.
31. Chan, K. H.,, Y. L. Gu,, F. Ng,, P. S. Ng,, W. H. Seto,, J. S. Sham,, D. Chua,, W. Wei,, Y. L. Chen,, W. Luk,, Y. S. Zong, and, M. H. Ng. 2003. EBV specific antibody-based and DNA-based assays in serologic diagnosis of nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Int. J. Cancer 105: 706– 709.
32. Chang, K.,, Y. Y. Chen,, D. Shibata, and, L. M. Weiss. 1992. Description of an in situ hybridization methodology for detection of Epstein-Barr virus RNA in paraffin-embedded tissues, with a survey of normal and neoplastic tissues. Diagn. Mol. Pathol. 1: 246– 255.
33. Chen, J. M. B.,, M. L. Barr,, A. Chadburn,, G. Frizzera,, F. A. Schenkel,, R. R. Sciacca,, D. S. Reison,, L. J. Addonizio,, E. A. Rose, and, D. M. Knowles. 1993. Management of lymphoproliferative disorders after cardiac transplantation. Ann. Thorac. Surg. 56: 527– 532.
34. Claudia, C.,, S. Bauer, et al. 2005. Serum Epstein-Barr virus DNA load in primary Epstein-Barr virus infection. J. Med. Virol. 75: 54– 58.
35. Cockfield, S. M. 2001. Identifying the patient at risk for post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder. Transpl. Infect. Dis. 3: 70– 78.
36. Cockfield, S. M.,, J. K. Preiksaitis,, L. D. Jewell, and, A. A. Parfrey. 1993. Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder in renal allograft recipients: clinical experience and risk factor analysis in a single center. Transplantation 56: 88– 96.
37. Conacher, M.,, R. Callard,, K. McAulay,, H. Chapel,, D. Webster,, D. Kumararatne,, A. Chandra,, G. Spickett,, P. A. Hopwood, and, D. H. Crawford. 2005. Epstein-Barr virus can establish infection in the absence of a classical memory B-cell population. J. Virol. 79: 11128– 11134.
38. Conley, M. E.,, L. D. Notarangelo, and, A. Etzioni. 1999. Diagnostic criteria for primary immunodeficiencies: representing PAGID (Pan-American Group for Immunodeficiency) and ESID (European Society for Immunodeficiencies). Clin. Immunol. 93: 190– 197.
39. Crotzer, V. L.,, R. E. Christian,, J. M. Brooks,, J. Shabanowitz,, R. E. Settlage,, J. A. Marto,, F. M. White,, A. B. Rickinson,, D. F. Hunt, and, V. H. Engelhard. 2000. Immunodominance among EBV-derived epitopes restricted by HLA-B27 does not correlate with epitope abundance in EBV-transformed B-Lymphoblastoid cell lines. J. Immunol. 164: 6120– 6129.
40. Curtis, R. E.,, L. B. Travis,, P. A. Rowlings,, G. Socie,, D. W. Kingma,, P. M. Banks,, E. S. Jaffe,, G. E. Sale,, M. M. Horowitz,, R. P. Witherspoon,, D. A. Shriner,, D. J. Weisdorf,, H.-J. Kolb,, K. M. Sullivan,, K. A. Sobocinski,, R. P. Gale,, R. N. Hoover,, J. F. Fraumeni, Jr., and, H. J. Deeg. 1999. Risk of lymphoproliferative disorders after bone marrow transplantation: a multi-institutional study. Blood 94: 2208– 2216.
41. Dave, S. S.,, K. Fu,, G. W. Wright,, L. T. Lam,, P. Kluin,, E.-J. Boerma,, T. C. Greiner,, D. D. Weisenburger,, A. Rosenwald,, G. Ott,, H.-K. Muller-Hermelink,, R. D. Gascoyne,, J. Delabie,, L. M. Rimsza,, R. M. Braziel,, T. M. Grogan,, E. Campo,, E. S. Jaffe,, B. J. Dave,, W. Sanger,, M. Bast,, J. M. Vose,, J. O. Armitage,, J. M. Connors,, E. B. Smeland,, S. Kvaloy,, H. Holte,, R. I. Fisher,, T. P. Miller,, E. Montserrat,, W. H. Wilson,, M. Bahl,, H. Zhao,, L. Yang,, J. Powell,, R. Simon,, W. C. Chan,, L. M. Staudt, et al. 2006. Molecular diagnosis of Burkitt’s lymphoma. N. Engl. J. Med. 354: 2431– 2442.
42. Davis, C. L.,, K. L. Harrison,, J. P. McVicar,, P. J. Forg,, M. P. Bronner, and, C. L. Marsh. 1995. Antiviral prophylaxis and the Epstein Barr virus-related post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder. Clin. Transplant. 9: 53– 61.
43. Deeg, H. J.,, J. Sanders, and, P. Martin. 1984. Secondary malignancies after marrow transplantation. Exp. Hematol. 12: 660.
44. Domingo-Domenech, E.,, S. de Sanjosé,, E. Gonzalez-Barca,, V. Romagosa,, A. Domingo-Claros,, S. Gil-Vernet,, J. Figueras,, N. Manito,, B. Oton,, J. Petit,, A. Granena, and, A. Fernandez de Sevilla. 2001. Post-transplant lymphomas: a 20-year epidemiologic, clinical and pathologic study in a single center. Haematologica 86: 715– 721.
45. Dorak, M. T.,, L. J. Yee,, J. Tang,, W. Shao,, E. S. Lobashevsky,, L. P. Jacobson, and, R. A. Kaslow. 2005. HLA-B,-DRB1/3/4/5, and -DQB1 gene polymorphisms in human immunodeficiency virus-related Kaposi’s sarcoma. J. Med. Virol. 76: 302– 310.
46. Dotti, G.,, R. Fiocchi,, T. Motta,, B. Facchinetti,, B. Chiodini,, G. M. Borleri,, G. Gavazzeni,, T. Barbui, and, A. Rambaldi. 1999. Primary effusion lymphoma after heart transplantation: a new entity associated with human herpesvirus-8. Leukemia 13: 664– 670.
47. Durandy, A.,, P. Revy,, K. Imai, and, A. Fischer. 2005. Hyper-immunoglobulin M syndromes caused by intrinsic B-lymphocyte defects. Immunol. Rev. 203: 67– 79.
48. Eltom, M. A.,, S. M. Mbulaiteye,, A. J. Dada,, D. Whitby, and, R. J. Biggar. 2002. Transmission of human herpesvirus 8 by sexual activity among adults in Lagos, Nigeria. AIDS 16: 2473– 2478.
49. Enblad, G.,, K. Sandvej,, E. Lennette,, C. Sundstrom,, G. Klein,, B. Glimelius, and, G. Pallesen. 1997. Lack of correlation between EBV serology and presence of EBV in the Hodgkin and Reed-Sternberg cells of patients with Hodgkin’s disease. Int. J. Cancer 72: 394– 397.
50. Engel, P.,, M. J. Eck, and, C. Terhorst. 2003. The SAP and SLAM families in immune responses and X-linked lymphoproliferative disease. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 3: 813.
51. Engels, E. A.,, D. Whitby,, P. B. Goebel,, A. Stossel,, D. Waters,, A. Pintus,, L. Contu,, R. J. Biggar, and, J. J. Goedert. 2000. Identifying human herpesvirus 8 infection: performance characteristics of serologic assays. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 23: 346– 354.
52. Falco, D. A.,, R. R. Nepomuceno,, S. M. Krams,, P. P. Lee,, M. M. Davis,, O. Salvatierra,, S. R. Alexander,, C. O. Esquivel,, K. L. Cox,, L. R. Frankel, and, O. M. Martinez. 2002. Identification of Epstein-Barr virus-specific CD8+ T lymphocytes in the circulation of pediatric transplant recipients. Transplantation 74: 501– 510.
53. Faulkner, G. C.,, S. R. Burrows,, R. Khanna,, D. J. Moss,, A. G. Bird, and, D. H. Crawford. 1999. X-linked agammaglobulinemia patients are not infected with Epstein-Barr virus: implications for the biology of the virus. J. Virol. 73: 1555– 1564.
54. Fellner, M. D.,, K. Durand,, R. M. Correa,, L. Redini,, C. Yampolsky,, A. Colobraro,, G. Sevlever,, A. R. Teyssie,, J. Benetucci, and, M. A. Picconi. 2007. Circulating Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) in HIV-infected patients and its relation with primary brain lymphoma. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 11: 172.
55. Foster, C. B.,, T. Lehrnbecher,, S. Samuels,, S. Stein,, F. Mol,, J. A. Metcalf,, K. Wyvill,, S. M. Steinberg,, J. Kovacs,, A. Blauvelt,, R. Yarchoan, and, S. J. Chanock. 2000. An IL6 promoter polymorphism is associated with a lifetime risk of development of Kaposi sarcoma in men infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Blood 96: 2562– 2567.
56. Fujimuro, M.,, K. Nakaso,, K. Nakashima,, H. Sadanari,, I. Hisanori,, Y. Teishikata,, S. D. Hayward, and, H. Yokosawa. 2006. Multiplex PCR-based DNA array for simultaneous detection of three human herpesviruses, EVB, CMV and KSHV. Exp. Mol. Pathol. 80: 124– 131.
57. Gandhi, M. K.,, E. Lambley,, J. Burrows,, U. Dua,, S. Elliott,, P. J. Shaw,, H. M. Prince,, M. Wolf,, K. Clarke,, C. Underhill,, T. Mills,, P. Mollee,, D. Gill,, P. Marlton,, J. F. Seymour, and, R. Khanna. 2006. Plasma Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) DNA is a biomarker for EBV-positive Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Clin. Cancer Res. 12: 460– 464.
58. Ganschow, R.,, T. Schulz,, T. Meyer,, D. C. Broering, and, M. Burdelski. 2004. Low-dose immunosuppression reduces the incidence of post-transplant lymphoproliferative disease in pediatric liver graft recipients. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 38: 198– 203.
59. Reference deleted.
60. Gartner, B. C.,, R. D. Hess,, D. Bandt,, A. Kruse,, A. Rethwilm,, K. Roemer, and, N. Mueller-Lantzsch. 2003. Evaluation of four commercially available Epstein-Barr virus enzyme immunoassays with an immunofluorescence assay as the reference method. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 10: 78– 82.
61. Gaya, A.,, A. Esteve,, J. Casabona,, J. J. McCarthy,, J. Martorell,, T. F. Schulz, and, D. Whitby. 2004. Amino acid residue at position 13 in HLA-DR beta chain plays a critical role in the development of Kaposi’s sarcoma in AIDS patients. AIDS 18: 199– 204.
62. Gazouli, M.,, G. Zavos,, I. Papaconstantinou,, J. C. Lukas,, A. Zografidis,, J. Boletis, and, A. Kostakis. 2004. The interleukin-6[hyphen]174 promoter polymorphism is associated with a risk of development of Kaposi’s sarcoma in renal transplant recipients. Anticancer Res. 24: 1311– 1314.
63. Giovannetti, A.,, M. Pierdominici,, F. Mazzetta,, M. Marziali,, C. Renzi,, A. M. Mileo,, M. De Felice,, B. Mora,, A. Esposito,, R. Carello,, A. Pizzuti,, M. G. Paggi,, R. Paganelli,, W. Malorni, and, F. Aiuti. 2007. Unravelling the complexity of T cell abnormalities in common variable immunodeficiency. J. Immunol. 178: 3932– 3943.
64. Glaser R.,, S. B. Friedman,, J. Smyth,, R. Ader,, P. Bijur,, P. Brunell,, N. Cohen,, L. R. Krilov,, S. T. Lifrak,, A. Stone, and, P. Toffler. 1999. The differential impact of training stress and final examination stress on herpesvirus latency at the United States Military Academy at West Point. Brain Behav. Res. 13: 240– 251.
65. Gottschalk, S.,, O. L. Edwards,, U. Sili,, M. H. Huls,, T. Goltsova,, A. R. Davis,, H. E. Heslop, and, C. M. Rooney. 2003. Generating CTLs against the subdominant Epstein-Barr virus LMP1 antigen for the adoptive immunotherapy of EBV-associated malignancies. Blood 101: 1905– 1912.
66. Gottschalk, S.,, C. M. Rooney, and, H. E. Heslop. 2005. Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders. Annu. Rev. Med. 56: 29– 44.
67. Gratama, J.,, M. Oosterveer,, F. Zwaan,, J. Lepoutre,, G. Klein, and, I. Ernberg. 1988. Eradication of Epstein-Barr virus by allogeneic marrow transplantation: implication for the site of viral latency. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85: 8693– 8699.
68. Green, M.,, T. V. Cacciarelli,, G. Mazariegos,, L. Sigurdsson,, L. Qu,, D. T. Rowe, and, G. Reyes. 1998. Serial measurement of EBV viral load in peripheral blood in pediatric liver transplant recipients during treatment for post transplant lymphoproliferative disease. Transplantation 66: 1641– 1644.
69. Grotto, I.,, D. Mimouni,, M. Huerta,, M. Mimouni,, D. Cohen,, G. Robin,, S. Pitlik, and, M. Green. 2003. Clinical and laboratory presentation of EBV positive infectious mononucleosis in young adults. Epidemiol. Infect. 131: 683– 689.
70. Gulley, M.,, H. Fan, and, S. H. Elmore. 2006. Validation of Roche LightCycler Epstein-Barr virus quantification reagents in a clinical laboratory setting. J. Mol. Diagn. 8: 589– 597.
71. Gutensohn, N.,, and P. Cole. 1980. Epidemiology of Hodgkin’s disease. Semin. Oncol. 7: 92– 102.
72. Gutierrez-Dalmau, A.,, A. Sanchez-Fructuoso,, A. Sanz-Guajardo,, A. Mazuecos,, A. Franco,, M. C. Rial,, P. Iranzo,, J. V. Torregrosa,, F. Oppenheimer, and, J. M. Campistol. 2005. Efficacy of conversion to sirolimus in posttransplantation Kaposi’s sarcoma. Transpl. Proc. 37: 3836– 3838.
73. Hadrup, S. R.,, J. Strindhall,, T. Kollgaard,, T. Seremet,, B. Johansson,, G. Pawelec,, P. thor Straten, and, A. Wikby. 2006. Longitudinal studies of clonally expanded CD8 T cells reveal a repertoire shrinkage predicting mortality and an increased number of dysfunctional cytomegalovirus-specific T cells in the very elderly. J. Immunol. 176: 2645– 2653.
74. Hammock, L.,, A. Reisenauer,, W. Wang,, C. Cohen,, G. Bird-song, and, A. L. Folpe. 2005. Latency-associated nuclear antigen expression and human herpesvirus-8 polymerase chain reaction in the evaluation of Kaposi sarcoma and other vascular tumors in HIV-positive patients. Mod. Pathol. 18: 463– 468.
75. Hennard, C.,, T. Pfuhl,, M. Buettner,, K. F. Becker,, T. Knöfel,, J. Middeldorp,, E. Kremmer,, G. Niedobitek, and, F. A. Grässer. 2006. The antibody 2B4 directed against the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-encoded nuclear antigen 1 (EBNA1) detects MAGE-4: implications for studies on the EBV association of human cancers. J. Pathol. 209: 430– 435.
76. Hill, C.,, S. Harris,, E. Culler,, J. Zimring,, F. S. Nolte, and, A. M. Caliendo. 2006. Performance characteristics of two real-time PCR assays for the quantification of Epstein-Barr virus DNA. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 125: 665– 671.
77. Hislop, A. D.,, N. E. Annels,, N. H. Gudgeon,, A. M. Leese, and, A. B. Rickinson. 2002. Epitope-specific evolution of human CD8+ T cell responses from primary to persistent phases of Epstein-Barr virus infection. J. Exp. Med. 195: 893– 905.
78. Hochberg, D.,, T. Souza,, M. Catalina,, J. L. Sullivan,, K. Luzuriaga, and, D. A. Thorley-Lawson. 2004. Acute infection with Epstein-Barr virus targets and overwhelms the peripheral memory B-cell compartment with resting, latently infected cells. J. Virol. 78: 5194– 5204.
79. Hollsberg, P.,, H. J. Hansen, and, S. Haahr. 2003. Altered CD8+ T cell responses to selected Epstein-Barr virus immunodominant epitopes in patients with multiple sclerosis. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 132: 137– 143.
80. Hongxin, F., et al. 2005. Epstein-Barr viral load as a marker of lymphoma in AIDS patients. J. Med. Virol. 75: 59– 69.
81. Hudnall, S. D.,, T. Chen, and, S. K. Tyring. 2004. Species identification of all eight human herpesviruses with a single nested PCR assay. J. Virol. Methods 116: 19– 26.
82. Hummel, M.,, S. Bentink,, H. Berger,, W. Klapper,, S. Wessendorf,, T. F. E. Barth,, H.-W. Bernd,, S. B. Cogliatti,, J. Dierlamm,, A. C. Feller,, M.-L. Hansmann,, E. Haralambieva,, L. Harder,, D. Hasenclever,, M. Kuhn,, D. Lenze,, P. Lichter,, J. I. Martin-Subero,, P. Moller,, H.-K. Muller-Hermelink,, G. Ott,, R. M. Parwaresch,, C. Pott,, A. Rosenwald,, M. Rosolowski,, C. Schwaenen,, B. Sturzenhofecker,, M. Szczepanowski,, H. Trautmann,, H.-H. Wacker,, R. Spang,, M. Loeffler,, L. Trumper,, H. Stein,, R. Siebert, et al. 2006. A biologic definition of Burkitt’s lymphoma from transcriptional and genomic profiling. N. Engl. J. Med. 354: 2419– 2430.
83. Imoto, S.,, T. Murayama,, H. Gomyo,, I. Mizuno,, T. Sugimoto,, T. Nakagawa, and, T. Koizumi. 2000. Long-term molecular remission induced by donor lymphocyte infusions for recurrent acute myeloblastic leukemia after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant. 26: 809– 810.
84. Ivers, L.,, A. Y. Kim, and, P. E. Sax. 2004. Predictive value of polymerase chain reaction of cerebrospinal fluid for detection of Epstein-Barr virus to establish the diagnosis of HIV-related primary central nervous system lymphoma. Clin. Infect. Dis. 38: 1629– 1632.
85. Jaffe, E.,, N. L. Harris,, H. Stein, and, J. W. Vardiman (ed.). 2001. World Health Organization classification of tumours: pathology and genetics, tumours of haematopoietic and lymphoid tissues. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
86. Jenkins, F. J.,, L. J. Hoffman, and, A. Liegey-Dougall. 2002. Reactivation of and primary infection with human herpesvirus 8 among solid-organ transplant recipients. J. Infect. Dis. 185: 1238– 1243.
87. Johnson, L. R. M. D.,, M. A. M. D. Nalesnik, and, S. H. M. D. Swerdlow. 2006. Impact of Epstein-Barr virus in monomorphic B-cell posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorders: a histogenetic study. Am. J. Surg. Pathol. 30: 1604– 1612.
88. Jumbou, O.,, C. Mollat,, J. M. N’Guyen,, S. Billaudel,, P. Litoux, and, B. Dreno. 1997. Increased anti-Epstein-Barr virus antibodies in epidermotropic cutaneous T-cell lymphoma: a study of 64 patients. Br. J. Dermatol. 136: 212– 216.
89. Jun, H.-S.,, and Y. Ji-Won. 2003. A new look at viruses in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev. 19: 8– 31.
90. Kanavaros, P.,, P. C. De Bruin,, J. Briere,, C. J. Meijer, and, P. Gaulard. 1995. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) in extranodal T-cell non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas (T-NHL). Identification of nasal T-NHL as a distinct clinicopathological entity associated with EBV. Leuk. Lymphoma 18: 27– 34.
91. Kapelushnik, J.,, S. Ariad,, D. Benharroch,, D. Landau,, A. Moser,, G. Delsol, and, P. Brousset. 2001. Post renal transplantation human herpesvirus 8-associated lymphoproliferative disorder and Kaposi’s sarcoma. Br. J. Haematol. 113: 425– 428.
92. Katsuki, T.,, Y. Hinuma,, T. Saito,, J. Yamamoto,, Y. Hirashima,, H. Sudoh,, M. Deguchi, and, M. Motokawa. 1979. Simultaneous presence of EBNA-positive and colony-forming cells in peripheral blood of patients with infectious mononucleosis. Int. J. Cancer 23: 746– 750.
93. Keegan, T. H. M.,, S. L. Glaser,, C. A. Clarke,, M. L. Gulley,, F. E. Craig,, J. A. DiGiuseppe,, R. F. Dorfman,, R. B. Mann, and, R. F. Ambinder. 2005. Epstein-Barr virus as a marker of survival after Hodgkin’s lymphoma: a population-based study. J. Clin. Oncol. 23: 7604– 7613.
94. Khan, G.,, A. Lake,, L. Shield,, J. Freeland,, L. Andrew,, F. E. Alexander,, R. Jackson,, P. R. A. Taylor,, E. A. B. McCruden, and, R. F. Jarrett. 2005. Phenotype and frequency of Epstein-Barr virus-infected cells in pretreatment blood samples from patients with Hodgkin lymphoma. Br. J. Haematol. 129: 511– 519.
95. Khanna, R.,, and S. R. Burrows. 2000. Role of cytotoxic T lymphocytes in Epstein-Barr virus-associated diseases. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 54: 19– 48.
96. Khanna, R.,, S. R. Burrows,, A. Neisig,, J. Neefjes,, D. J. Moss, and, S. L. Silins. 1997. Hierarchy of Epstein-Barr virus-specific cytotoxic T-cell responses in individuals carrying different subtypes of an HLA allele: implications for epitope-based antiviral vaccines. J. Virol. 71: 7429– 7435.
97. Kimura, H. 2006. Pathogenesis of chronic active Epstein-Barr virus infection: is this an infectious disease, lymphoproliferative disorder, or immunodeficiency? Rev. Med. Virol. 16: 251– 261.
98. Kimura, H.,, Y. Hoshino,, H. Kanegane,, I. Tsuge,, T. Okamura,, K. Kawa, and, T. Morishima. 2001. Clinical and virologic characteristics of chronic active Epstein-Barr virus infection. Blood 98: 280– 286.
99. Kimura, H.,, M. Morita,, Y. Yabuta,, K. Kuzushima,, K. Kato,, S. Kojima,, T. Matsuyama, and, T. Morishima. 1999. Quantitative analysis of Epstein-Barr virus load by using a real-time PCR assay. J. Clin. Microbiol. 37: 132– 136.
100. Klein, G.,, E. Svedmyr,, M. Jondal, and, P. O. Persson. 1976. EBV-determined nuclear antigen (EBNA)-positive cells in the peripheral blood of infectious mononucleosis patients. Int. J. Cancer 17: 21– 26.
101. Kocoshis, S. A. 1994. Small bowel transplantation in infants and children. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. 23: 727.
102. Kozic, S.,, A. Vince,, J. I. Bes,, O. D. Rode,, S. Z. Lepej,, M. Poljak,, M. Bozic, and, H. H. Kessler. 2006. Evaluation of a commercial real-time PCR assay for quantitation of Epstein-Barr virus DNA in different groups of patients. J. Virol. Methods 135: 263.
103. Kusunoki, Y.,, H. Huang,, Y. Fukuda,, K. Ozaki,, M. Saito,, Y. Hirai, and, M. Akiyama. 1993. A positive correlation between the precursor frequency of cytotoxic lymphocytes to autologous Epstein-Barr virus-transformed B cells and antibody titer level against Epstein-Barr virus-associated nuclear antigen in healthy seropositive individuals. Microbiol. Immunol. 37: 461– 469.
104. Kuzushima, K.,, N. Hayashi,, A. Kudoh,, Y. Akatsuka,, K. Tsujimura,, Y. Morishima, and, T. Tsurumi. 2003. Tetramer-assisted identification and characterization of epitopes recognized by HLA A*2402-restricted Epstein-Barr virus-specific CD8+ T cells. Blood 101: 1460– 1468.
105. Kwong, Y. 2005. Natural killer-cell malignancies: diagnosis and treatment. Leukemia 19: 2186– 2194.
106. Kwong, Y. L.,, Chan, R. Liang,, A. K. S. Chiang,, C. S. Chim,, T. K. Chan,, D. Todd, and, F. C. S. Ho. 1997. CD56+ NK lymphomas: clinicopathological features and prognosis. Br. J. Haematol. 97: 821– 829.
107. Lam, L. L.,, C. P. Pau,, S. C. Dollard,, P. E. Pellett, and, T. J. Spira. 2002. Highly sensitive assay for human herpesvirus 8 antibodies that uses a multiple antigenic peptide derived from open reading frame K8. 1. J. Clin. Microbiol. 40: 325– 329.
108. Laney, A. S.,, S. C. Dollard,, H. W. Jaffe,, M. K. Offermann,, T. J. Spira,, C. J. Gunthel,, P. E. Pellett, and, M. J. Cannon. 2004. Repeated measures study of human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8) DNA and antibodies in men seropositive for both HHV-8 and HIV. AIDS 18: 1819– 1826.
109. Lavreys, L.,, B. Chohan,, R. Ashley,, B. A. Richardson,, L. Corey,, K. Mandaliya,, J. O. Ndinya-Achola, and, J. K. Kreiss. 2003. Human herpesvirus 8: seroprevalence and correlates in prostitutes in Mombasa, Kenya. J. Infect. Dis. 187: 359– 363.
110. Leblond, V.,, L. Sutton,, R. Dorent,, F. Davi,, M. O. Bitker,, J. Gabarre,, F. Charlotte,, J. J. Ghoussoub,, C. Fourcade, and, A. Fischer. 1995. Lymphoproliferative disorders after organ transplantation: a report of 24 cases observed in a single center. J. Clin. Oncol. 13: 961– 968.
111. Lee, T. C.,, B. Savoldo,, C. M. Rooney,, H. E. Heslop,, A. P. Gee,, Y. Caldwell,, N. R. Barshes,, J. D. Scott,, L. J. Bristow,, C. A. O’Mahony, and, J. A. Goss. 2005. Quantitative EBV viral loads and immunosuppression alterations can decrease PTLD incidence in pediatric liver transplant recipients. Am. J. Transplant. 5: 2222– 2228.
112. Lehrnbecher, T. L.,, C. B. Foster,, S. Zhu,, D. Venzon,, S. M. Steinberg,, K. Wyvill,, J. A. Metcalf,, S. S. Cohen,, J. Kovacs,, R. Yarchoan,, A. Blauvelt, and, S. J. Chanock. 2000. Variant genotypes of FcgammaRIIIA influence the development of Kaposi’s sarcoma in HIV-infected men. Blood 95: 2386– 2390.
113. Leung, E.,, B. K. Shenton,, K. Green,, G. Jackson,, F. K. Gould,, C. Yap, and, D. Talbot. 2004. Dynamic EBV gene loads in renal, hepatic, and cardiothoracic transplant recipients as determined by real-time PCR light cycler. Transpl. Infect. Dis. 6: 156– 164.
114. Levine, P.,, G. Pallesen,, P. Ebbesen,, N. Harris,, A. S. Evans, and, N. Mueller. 1994. Evaluation of Epstein-Barr virus antibody patterns and detection of viral markers in the biopsies of patients with Hodgkin’s disease. Int. J. Cancer 59: 48– 50.
115. Lucas, K. G.,, T. N. Small,, G. Heller,, B. Dupont, and, R. J. O’Reilly. 1996. The development of cellular immunity to Epstein-Barr virus after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. Blood 87: 2594– 2603.
116. Luderer, R.,, M. Kok,, H. G. M. Niesters,, R. Schuurman,, O. de Weerdt, and, S. F. T. Thijsen. 2005. Real-time Epstein-Barr virus PCR for the diagnosis of primary EBV infections and EBV reactivation. Mol. Diagn. 9: 195– 200.
117. Lumbreras, C.,, I. Fernandez,, J. Velosa,, S. Munn,, S. Sterioff, and, C. V. Paya. 1995. Infectious complications following pancreatic transplantation: incidence, microbiological and clinical characteristics, and outcome. Clin. Infect. Dis. 20: 514.
118. Luppi, M.,, P. Barozzi,, V. Rasini, and, G. Torelli. 2002. HHV-8 infection in the transplantation setting: a concern only for solid organ transplant patients? Leuk. Lymphoma 43: 517– 522.
119. Luppi, M.,, P. Barozzi,, G. Santagostino,, R. Trovato,, T. F. Schulz,, R. Marasca,, D. Bottalico,, L. Bignardi, and, G. Torelli. 2000. Molecular evidence of organ-related transmission of Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus or human herpesvirus-8 in transplant patients. Blood 96: 3279– 3281.
120. Luppi, M.,, P. Barozzi,, T. F. Schulz,, G. Setti,, K. Staskus,, R. Trovato,, F. Narni,, A. Donelli,, A. Maiorana,, R. Marasca,, S. Sandrini, and, G. Torelli. 2000. Bone marrow failure associated with human herpesvirus 8 infection after transplantation. N. Engl. J. Med. 343: 1378– 1385.
121. Mackay, I. M.,, K. E. Arden, and, A. Nitsche. 2002. Real-time PCR in virology. Nucleic Acids Res. 30: 1292– 1305.
122. Marcelin, A. G.,, V. Calvez, and, E. Dussaix. 2007. KSHV after an organ transplant: should we screen? Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 312: 245– 262.
123. Marcelin, A. G.,, A. M. Roque-Afonso,, M. Hurtova,, N. Dupin,, M. Tulliez,, M. Sebagh,, Z. A. Arkoub,, C. Guettier,, D. Samuel,, V. Calvez, and, E. Dussaix. 2004. Fatal disseminated Kaposi’s sarcoma following human herpesvirus 8 primary infections in liver-transplant recipients. Liver Transplant. 10: 295– 300.
124. Marshall, N. A.,, L. E. Christie,, L. R. Munro,, D. J. Culligan,, P. W. Johnston,, R. N. Barker, and, M. A. Vickers. 2004. Immunosuppressive regulatory T cells are abundant in the reactive lymphocytes of Hodgkin lymphoma. Blood 103: 1755– 1762.
125. Martin, J. N.,, Z. Amad,, C. Cossen,, P. K. Lam,, D. H. Kedes,, K. A. Page-Shafer,, D. H. Osmond, and, B. Forghani. 2000. Use of epidemiologically well-defined subjects and existing immunofluorescence assays to calibrate a new enzyme immunoassay for human herpesvirus 8 antibodies. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38: 696– 701.
126. Martin, J. N.,, D. E. Ganem,, D. H. Osmond,, K. A. Page-Shafer,, D. Macrae, and, D. H. Kedes. 1998. Sexual transmission and the natural history of human herpesvirus 8 infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 338: 948– 954.
127. Matsushima, A. Y.,, J. A. Strauchen,, G. Lee,, E. Scigliano,, E. E. Hale,, M. T. Weisse,, D. Burstein,, O. Kamel,, P. S. Moore, and, Y. Chang. 1999. Posttransplantation plasmacytic proliferations related to Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus. Am. J. Surg. Pathol. 23: 1393– 1400.
128. Mbulaiteye, S. M.,, and E. A. Engels. 2006. Kaposi’s sarcoma risk among transplant recipients in the United States (1993–2003). Int. J. Cancer 119: 2685– 2691.
129. McDiarmid, S.,, S. Jordan, and, G. S. Lee. 1999. Prevention and preemptive therapy of posttransplant lymphoproliferative disease in pediatric liver recipients. Transplantation 66: 1604– 1611.
130. McKnight, J. L.,, H. Cen,, S. A. Riddler,, M. C. Breinig,, P. A. Williams,, M. Ho, and, P. S. Joseph. 1994. EBV gene expression, EBNA antibody responses and EBV+ peripheral blood lymphocytes in post-transplant lymphoproliferative disease. Leuk. Lymphoma 15: 9– 16.
131. Meij P.,, M. B. Vervoort,, E. Bloemena,, T. E. Schouten,, C. Schwartz,, S. Grufferman,, R. F. Ambinder, and, J. M. Middeldorp. 2002. Antibody responses to Epstein-Barr virus-encoded latent membrane protein-1 (LMP1) and expression of LMP1 in juvenile Hodgkin’s disease. J. Med. Virol. 68: 370– 377.
132. Meijer, E.,, A. W. Dekker,, A. J. L. Weersink,, M. Rozenberg-Arska, and, L. F. Verdonck. 2002. Prevention and treatment of Epstein-Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative disorders in recipients of bone marrow and solid organ transplants. Br. J. Haematol. 119: 596– 607.
133. Mesri, E. A.,, E. Cesarman,, L. Arvanitakis,, S. Rafii,, M. A. Moore,, D. N. Posnett,, D. M. Knowles, and, A. S. Asch. 1996. Human herpesvirus-8/Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus is a new transmissible virus that infects B cells. J. Exp. Med. 183: 2385– 2390.
134. Middledorp, J. M. 1999. Monitoring of Epstein-Barr virus DNA load in the peripheral blood by quantitative competitive PCR. J. Clin. Microbiol. 37: 2852– 2857.
135. Miller, I. G. 1990. Epstein-Barr virus, p. 2397–2436. In B. N. Fields et al. (ed.), Fields Virology, 2nd ed. Lippincott-Raven Publishers, Philadelphia, PA.
136. Min, J.,, and D. A. Katzenstein. 1999. Detection of Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus in peripheral blood cells in human immunodeficiency virus infection: association with Kaposi’s sarcoma, CD4 cell count, and HIV RNA levels. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 15: 51– 55.
137. Mitchell, J. L.,, C. M. Doyle,, M. V. Land, and, P. L. Devine. 1998. Comparison of commercial ELISA for detection of antibodies to the viral capsid antigen (VCA) of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). Dis. Markers 13: 245– 249.
138. Miyashita, E.,, B. Yang,, G. Babcock, and, D. Thorley-Lawson. 1997. Identification of the site of Epstein-Barr virus persistence in vivo as a resting B cell. J. Virol. 71: 4882– 4891.
139. Moore, P. S.,, L. A. Kingsley,, S. D. Holmberg,, T. Spira,, P. Gupta,, D. R. Hoover,, J. P. Parry,, L. J. Conley,, H. W. Jaffe, and, Y. Chang. 1996. Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus infection prior to onset of Kaposi’s sarcoma. AIDS 10: 175– 180.
140. Moormann, A.,, K. Chelimo,, O. P. Sumba,, M. L. Lutzke,, R. Ploutz-Snyder,, D. Newton,, J. Kazura, and, R. Rochford. 2005. Exposure to holoendemic malaria results in elevated Epstein-Barr virus loads in children. J. Infect. Dis. 191: 1233– 1238.
141. Moosa, M. R. 2005. Kaposi’s sarcoma in kidney transplant recipients: a 23-year experience. QJM 98: 205– 214.
142. Mueller, N.,, A. Evans,, N. L. Harris,, G. W. Comstock,, E. Jellum,, K. Magnus,, N. Orentreich,, B. F. Polk, and, J. Vogelman. 1989. Hodgkin’s disease and Epstein-Barr virus. Altered antibody pattern before diagnosis. N. Engl. J. Med. 320: 689– 695.
143. Murray, P. G. 2006. Epstein-Barr virus in breast cancer: artefact or aetiological agent? J. Pathol. 209: 427– 429.
144. Murray, R. J.,, M. G. Kurilla,, J. M. Brooks,, W. A. Thomas,, M. Rowe,, E. Kieff, and, A. B. Rickinson. 1992. Identification of target antigens for the human cytotoxic T cell response to Epstein-Barr virus (EBV): implications for the immune control of EBV-positive malignancies. J. Exp. Med. 176: 157– 168.
145. Myhr, K. M.,, T. Riise,, E. Barrett-Connor,, H. Myrmel,, C. Vedeler,, M. Gronning,, M. B. Kalvenes, and, H. Nyland. 1998. Altered antibody pattern to Epstein-Barr virus but not to other herpesviruses in multiple sclerosis: a population based case-control study from western Norway. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psych. 64: 539– 542.
146. Nakatsuka, S.,, and K. Aozasab. 2006. Epidemiology and pathologic features of Hodgkin lymphoma. Int. J. Hematol. 83: 391– 397.
147. Nalesnik, M.,, R. Jaffe,, T. E. Starzl,, A. J. Demetris,, K. Porter,, J. A. Burnham,, L. Makowka,, M. Ho, and, J. Locker. 1988. The pathology of post-transplant lymphoproliferative disease occurring in the setting of cyclosporine A-prednisone immunosuppression. J. Pathol. 133: 173– 183.
148. Nalesnik, M. A. 2001. The diverse pathology of post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders: the importance of a standardized approach. Transpl. Infect. Dis. 3: 88– 96.
149. Nelson, B.,, M. Nalesnik,, D. Bahler,, J. Locker,, J. Fung, and, S. Swerdlow. 2000. Epstein-Barr virus-negative post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders: a distinct entity? Am. J. Surg. Pathol. 24: 375– 385.
150. Niesters, H. G.,, J. van Esser,, E. Fries,, K. C. Wolhers,, J. Corneilissen, and, A. D. Osterhaus. 2000. Development of a real-time quantitative assay for detection of Epstein-Barr virus. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38: 712– 715.
151. Nishikori, M.,, and T. Uchiyama. 2006. Molecular pathogenesis of Hodgkin lymphoma. Int. J. Hematol. 83: 398– 403.
152. Nordstrom, M.,, L. Hardell,, A. Linde,, L. Schloss, and, A. Nasman. 1999. Elevated antibody levels to Epstein-Barr virus antigens in patients with hairy cell leukemia compared to controls in relation to exposure to pesticides, organic solvents, animals, and exhausts. Oncol. Res. 11: 539– 544.
153. Okamura, T.,, Y. Hatsukawa,, H. Arai,, M. Inoue, and, K. Kawa. 2000. Blood stem-cell transplantation for chronic active Epstein-Barr virus with lymphoproliferation. Lancet 356: 223.
154. Okano, M.,, S. Matsumoto,, T. Osato,, Y. Sakiyama,, G. M. Thiele, and, D. T. Purtilo. 1991. Severe chronic active Epstein-Barr virus infection syndrome. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 4: 129– 135.
155. Opelz, G.,, and B. Dohler. 2004. Lymphomas after solid organ transplantation: a collaborative transplant study report. Am. J. Transplant. 4: 222– 230.
156. Opelz, G.,, and R. Henderson. 1993. Incidence of non-Hodgkin lymphoma in kidney and heart transplant recipients. Lancet 342: 1514.
157. O’Sullivan, C. E.,, R. Peng,, K. S. Cole,, R. C. Montelaro,, T. Sturgeon,, H. B. Jenson, and, P. D. Ling. 2002. Epstein-Barr virus and human immunodeficiency virus serological responses and viral burdens in HIV-infected patients treated with HAART. J. Med. Virol. 67: 320– 326.
158. Ouyang, Q.,, W. M. Wagner,, S. Walter,, C. A. Muller,, A. Wikby,, G. Aubert,, T. Klatt,, S. Stevanovic,, T. Dodi, and, G. Pawelec. 2003. An age-related increase in the number of CD8+ T cells carrying receptors for an immunodominant Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) epitope is counteracted by a decreased frequency of their antigen-specific responsiveness. Mech. Ageing Dev. 124: 477.
159. Parravicini, C.,, S. J. Olsen,, M. Capra,, F. Poli,, G. Sirchia,, S. J. Gao,, E. Berti,, A. Nocera,, E. Rossi,, G. Bestetti,, M. Pizzuto,, M. Galli,, M. Moroni,, P. S. Moore, and, M. Corbellino. 1997. Risk of Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpes virus transmission from donor allografts among Italian posttransplant Kaposi’s sarcoma patients. Blood 90: 2826– 2829.
160. Patel, N.,, M. Salifu,, N. Sumrani,, D. Distant,, J. Hong,, M. Markell, and, A. S. Braverman. 2002. Successful treatment of post-renal transplant Kaposi’s sarcoma with paclitaxel. Am. J. Transplant. 2: 877– 879.
161. Pawelec, G.,, A. Akbar,, C. Caruso,, R. Effros,, B. Grubeck-Loebenstein, and, A. Wikby. 2004. Is immunosenescence infectious? Trends Immunol. 25: 406.
162. Pellett, P. E.,, D. J. Wright,, E. A. Engels,, D. V. Ablashi,, S. C. Dollard,, B. Forghani,, S. A. Glynn,, J. J. Goedert,, F. J. Jenkins,, T. H. Lee,, F. Neipel,, D. S. Todd,, D. Whitby,, G. J. Nemo, and, M. P. Busch. 2003. Multicenter comparison of serologic assays and estimation of human herpesvirus 8 seroprevalence among US blood donors. Transfusion 43: 1260– 1268.
163. Pica, F.,, and A. Volpi. 2007. Transmission of human herpesvirus 8: an update. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 20: 152– 156.
164. Piriou, E. R.,, K. van Dort,, N. M. Nanlohy,, F. Miedema,, M. H. van Oers, and, D. van Baarle. 2004. Altered EBV viral load setpoint after HIV seroconversion is in accordance with lack of predictive value of EBV load for the occurrence of AIDS-related non-Hodgkin lymphoma. J. Immunol. 172: 6931– 6937.
165. Preiksaitis, J. D.,, F. Diaz-Mitoma,, F. Mirzayans,, S. Roberts, and, D. L. J. Tyrrell. 1992. Quantitative oropharyngeal Epstein-Barr virus shedding in renal and cardiac transplant recipients: relationship to immunosuppressive therapy, serologic responses, and the risk of posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorder. J. Infect. Dis. 166: 986– 990.
166. Raeiszadeh, M.,, J. Kopycinski,, S. J. Paston,, T. Diss,, M. Lowdell,, G. A. D. Hardy,, A. D. Hislop,, S. Workman,, A. Dodi,, V. Emery, and, A. D. Webster. 2006. The T cell response to persistent herpes virus infections in common variable immunodeficiency. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 146: 234– 242.
167. Rea, T. D.,, R. L. Ashley,, J. E. Russo, and, D. S. Buchwald. 2002. A systematic study of Epstein-Barr virus serologic assays following acute infection. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 117: 3715– 3724.
168. Regamey, N.,, M. Tamm,, M. Wernli,, A. Witschi,, G. Thiel,, G. Cathomas, and, P. Erb. 1998. Transmission of human herpesvirus 8 infection from renal-transplant donors to recipients. N. Engl. J. Med. 339: 1358– 1363.
169. Renne, R.,, W. Zhong,, B. Herndier,, M. McGrath,, N. Abbey,, D. Kedes, and, D. Ganem. 1996. Lytic growth of Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (human herpesvirus 8) in culture. Nat. Med. 2: 342– 346.
170. Rickinson, A. 2001. Epstein-Barr virus. Virus Res. 82: 109.
171. Rickinson, A. B.,, and E. Kieff. 1996. Epstein-Barr virus, p. 2397–2436. In D. Knipe, et al. (ed.), Fields Virology, 3rd ed. Lippincott-Raven Publishers, Philadelphia, PA.
172. Rickinson, A. B.,, and D. J. Moss. 1997. Human cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses to Epstein-Barr virus infection. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 15: 405– 431.
173. Riddler, S. A.,, M. C. Breinig, and, J. L. McKnight. 1994. Increased levels of circulating Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-infected lymphocytes and decreased EBV nuclear antigen antibody responses are associated with the development of posttransplant lymphoproliferative disease in solid-organ transplant recipients. Blood 84: 972– 984.
174. Robertson P.,, S. Beynon,, R. Whybin,, C. Brennan,, U. Vollmer-Conna,, I. Hickie, and, A. Lloyd. 2003. Measurement of EBV-IgG anti-VCA avidity aids the early and reliable diagnosis of primary EBV infection. J. Med. Virol. 70: 617– 623.
175. Robinson, J.,, D. Smith, and, J. Niederman. 1980. Plasmacytic differentiation of circulating Epstein-Barr virus-infected B lymphocytes during acute infectious mononucleosis. J. Exp. Med. 153: 235– 244.
176. Robinson, J.,, D. Smith, and, J. Niederman. 1980. Mitotic EBNA-positive lymphocytes in peripheral blood during infectious mononucleosis. Nature 287: 334– 335.
177. Reference deleted.
178. Rogers, B. B.,, C. Conlin,, C. F. Timmons,, D. B. Dawson,, K. Krisher, and, W. S. Andrews. 1997. Epstein-Barr virus PCR correlated with viral histology and serology in pediatric liver transplant recipients. Pediatr. Pathol. Lab. Med. 17: 391– 400.
179. Rooney, C.,, J. G. Howe,, S. H. Speck, and, G. Miller. 1989. Influence of Burkitt’s lymphoma and primary B cells on latent gene expression by the nonimmortalizing P3J-HR-1 strain of Epstein-Barr virus. J. Virol. 63: 1531– 1539.
180. Rowe, D. T.,, L. Qu,, J. Reyes,, N. Jabbour,, E. Yunis,, P. Putnam,, S. Todo, and, M. Green. 1997. Use of quantitative competitive PCR to measure Epstein-Barr virus genome load in the peripheral blood of pediatric transplant patients with lymphoproliferative disorders. J. Clin. Microbiol. 35: 1612– 1615.
181. Rowe, D. T.,, S. Webber,, E. M. Schauer,, J. Reyes, and, M. Green. 2001. Epstein-Barr virus load monitoring: its role in the prevention and management of post-transplant lymphoproliferative disease. Transpl. Infect. Dis. 3: 79– 87.
182. Ruth, F. J. 2006. Viruses and lymphoma/leukaemia. J. Pathol. 208: 176– 186.
183. Sairenji, T.,, M. Daibata,, C. H. Sorli,, H. Qvistb äck,, R. E. Humphreys,, J. Ludvigsson,, J. Palmer,, M. Landin-Olsson,, G. Sundkvist,, B. Michelsen,, A. Lernmark, and, T. Dyrberg. 1991. Relating homology between the Epstein-Barr virus BOLF1 molecule and HLA-DQw8 β chain to recent onset type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 34: 33– 39.
184. Sanchez-Fructuoso, A.,, J. Conesa,, I. Perez Flores,, N. Ridao,, N. Calvo,, D. Prats,, A. Rodriguez, and, A. Barrientos. 2006. Conversion to sirolimus in renal transplant patients with tumors. Transplant. Proc. 38: 2451– 2452.
185. Schaade, L.,, M. Kleines, and, M. Hausler. 2001. Application of virus-specific immunoglobulin M (IgM), IgG, and IgA antibody detection with a polyantigenic enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for diagnosis of Epstein-Barr virus infections in childhood. J. Clin. Microbiol. 39: 3902– 3905.
186. Schatz, O.,, P. Monini,, R. Bugarini,, F. Neipel,, T. F. Schulz,, M. Andreoni,, P. Erb,, M. Eggers,, J. Haas,, S. Butto,, M. Lukwiya,, J. R. Bogner,, S. Yaguboglu,, J. Sheldon,, L. Sarmati,, F. D. Goebel,, R. Hintermaier,, G. Enders,, N. Regamey,, M. Wernli,, M. Sturzl,, G. Rezza, and, B. Ensoli. 2001. Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus serology in Europe and Uganda: multicentre study with multiple and novel assays. J. Med. Virol. 65: 123– 132.
187. Sergerie, Y.,, Y. Abed,, J. Roy, and, G. Boivin. 2004. Comparative evaluation of three serological methods for detection of human herpesvirus 8-specific antibodies in Canadian allogeneic stem cell transplant recipients. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42: 2663– 2667.
188. Shedd, D.,, A. Angeloni,, J. Niederman, and, G. Miller. 1995. Detection of human serum antibodies to the BFRF3 Epstein-Barr virus capsid component by means of a DNA-binding assay. J. Infect. Dis. 172: 1367– 1370.
189. Shinkura, R.,, N. Yamamoto,, C. Koriyama,, Y. Shinmura,, Y. Eizuru, and, M. Tokunaga. 2000. Epstein-Barr virus-specific antibodies in Epstein-Barr virus-positive and -negative gastric carcinoma cases in Japan. J. Med. Virol. 60: 411– 416.
190. Sitas, F.,, H. Carrara,, V. Beral,, R. Newton,, G. Reeves,, D. Bull,, U. Jentsch,, R. Pacella-Norman,, D. Bourboulia,, D. Whitby,, C. Boshoff, and, R. Weiss. 1999. Antibodies against human herpesvirus 8 in black South African patients with cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 340: 1863– 1871.
191. Siu, L.,, J. K. Chan, and, Y. L. Kwong. 2002. Natural killer cell malignancies: clinicopathologic and molecular features. Histol. Histopathol. 17: 539– 554.
192. Smets, F.,, and E. M. Sokal. 2002. Epstein-Barr virus-related lymphoproliferation in children after liver transplant: role of immunity, diagnosis, and management. Pediatr. Transplant. 6: 280– 287.
193. Smets, F.,, D. Latinne,, H. Bazin,, R. Reding,, J. B. Otte,, J. P. Buts, and, E. M. Sokal. 2002. Ratio between Epstein-Barr viral load and anti-Epstein-Barr virus specific T-cell response as a predictive marker of posttransplant lymphoproliferative disease. Transplantation 73: 1603– 1610.
194. Smith, N. A.,, C. A. Sabin,, R. Gopal,, D. Bourboulia,, W. Labbet,, C. Boshoff,, D. Barlow,, B. Band,, B. S. Peters,, A. de Ruiter,, D. W. Brown,, R. A. Weiss,, J. M. Best, and, D. Whitby. 1999. Serologic evidence of human herpesvirus 8 transmission by homosexual but not heterosexual sex. J. Infect. Dis. 180: 600– 606.
195. Spira, T. J.,, L. Lam,, S. C. Dollard,, Y. X. Meng,, C. P. Pau,, J. B. Black,, D. Burns,, B. Cooper,, M. Hamid,, J. Huong,, K. Kite-Powell, and, P. E. Pellett. 2000. Comparison of serologic assays and PCR for diagnosis of human herpesvirus 8 infection. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38: 2174– 2180.
196. Stamey, F. R.,, M. M. Patel,, B. P. Holloway, and, P. E. Pellett. 2001. Quantitative, fluorogenic probe PCR assay for detection of human herpesvirus 8 DNA in clinical specimens. J. Clin. Microbiol. 39: 3537– 3540.
197. Stevens, S. J. C.,, B. S. N. A. Blank,, P. H. M. B. Smits,, P. L. C. Meenhorst, and, J. M. Middeldorp. 2002. High Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) DNA loads in HIV-infected patients: correlation with antiretroviral therapy and quantitative EBV serology. AIDS 16: 993– 1001.
198. Stevens, S. J. C.,, E. A. M. Verschuuren,, S. A. W. M. Verkuijlen,, A. J. C. V. D. Brule,, C. J. L. M. Meijer, and, J. M. Middeldorp. 2002. Role of Epstein-Barr virus DNA load monitoring in prevention and early detection of post-transplant lymphoproliferative disease. Leuk. Lymphoma 43: 831– 840.
199. Stowe, R. P.,, D. L. Pierson,, D. L. Feeback, and, A. D. Barrett. 2000. Stress-induced reactivation of Epstein-Barr virus in astronauts. Neuroimmunomodulation 8: 51– 58.
200. Straathof, K.,, C. M. Bollard,, C. M. Rooney, and, H. E. Heslop. 2003. Immunotherapy for Epstein-Barr virus-associated cancers in children. Oncologist 8: 83– 98.
201. Stratta, R. J.,, R. J. Taylor,, J. S. Bynon,, J. A. Lowell,, M. S. Cattral,, K. Frisbie,, S. Miller,, S. J. Radio, and, D. C. Brennan. 1994. Viral prophylaxis in combined pancreas-kidney transplant recipients. Transplantation 57: 506– 511.
202. Sugaya, N.,, H. Kimura,, S. Hara,, Y. Hoshino,, S. Kojima,, T. Morishima,, T. Tsurumi, and, K. Kuzushima. 2004. Quantitative analysis of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-specific CD8+ T cells in patients with chronic active EBV infection. J. Infect. Dis. 190: 985– 988.
203. Suzuki, K.,, K. Ohshima,, K. Karube,, J. Suzumiya,, J. Ohga,, S. Ishihara,, K. Tamura, and, M. Kikuchi. 2004. Clinico-pathological states of Epstein-Barr virus-associated T/NK-cell lymphoproliferative disorders (severe chronic active EBV infection) of children and young adults. Int. J. Oncol. 24: 1165– 1174.
204. Swinnen, L. 2000. Diagnosis and treatment of transplant-related lymphoma. Ann. Oncol. 11: 45– 48.
205. Swinnen, L. J.,, M. R. Costanzo-Nordin,, S. G. Fisher,, E. J. O’Sullivan,, M. R. Johnson,, A. L. Heroux,, G. J. Dizikes,, R. Pifarre, and, R. I. Fisher. 1990. Increased incidence of lymphoproliferative disorder after immunosuppression with the monoclonal antibody OKT3 in cardiac-transplant recipients. N. Engl. J. Med. 323: 1723– 1728.
206. Szkaradkiewicz, A.,, A. Kruk-Zagajewska,, M. Wal,, A. Jopek,, M. Wierzbicka, and, A. Kuch. 2002. Epstein-Barr virus and human papillomavirus infections and oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinomas. Clin. Exp. Med. 2: 137– 141.
207. Taeko Uehara, C., et al. 2004. Successful control of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-infected cells by allogeneic nonmyeloablative stem cell transplantation in a patient with the lethal form of chronic active EBV infection. Am. J. Hematol. 76: 368– 372.
208. Tamaki H.,, B. Beaulieu,, M. Somasunrdaran, and, J. Sullivan. 1995. Major histocompatibility complex class I restricted CTL responses to EBV in children. J. Infect. Dis. 172: 739– 752.
209. Tan, L. C.,, N. Gudgeon,, N. E. Annels,, P. Hansasuta,, C. A. O’Callaghan,, S. Rowland-Jones,, A. J. McMichael,, A. B. Rickinson, and, M. F. C. Callan. 1999. A re-evaluation of the frequency of CD8+ T cells specific for EBV in healthy virus carriers. J. Immunol. 162: 1827– 1835.
210. Tappero, J. W.,, M. A. Conant,, S. F. Wolfe, and, T. G. Berger. 1993. Kaposi’s sarcoma. Epidemiology, pathogenesis, histology, clinical spectrum, staging criteria and therapy. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 28: 371– 395.
211. Thaunat, O.,, M. F. Mamzer-Bruneel,, F. Agbalika,, F. Valensi,, M. Venditto,, C. Lebbe,, C. Frances,, R. Kania,, L. Chatenoud,, C. Antoine,, S. Kaveri,, H. Kreis, and, E. Morelon. 2006. Severe human herpesvirus-8 primary infection in a renal transplant patient successfully treated with anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody. Blood 107: 3009– 3010.
212. Theate, I.,, L. Michaux,, J. P. Squifflet,, A. Martin, and, M. Raphael. 2003. Human herpesvirus 8 and Epstein-Barr virus-related monotypic large B-cell lymphoproliferative disorder coexisting with mixed variant of Castleman’s disease in a lymph node of a renal transplant recipient. Clin. Transplant. 17: 451– 454.
213. Thiele, G. M.,, and M. Okano. 1993. Diagnosis of Epstein-Barr virus infections in the clinical laboratory. Clin. Microbiol. News 15: 41– 46.
214. Thorley-Lawson, D. A.,, and A. Gross. 2004. Persistence of the Epstein-Barr virus and the origins of associated lymphomas. N. Engl. J. Med. 350: 1328– 1337.
215. Todo, S.,, A. Tzakis,, K. Abu-Elmagd,, J. Reyes,, H. Furukawa,, B. Nour,, J. Fung,, A. Demetris, and, T. E. Starzl. 1995. Abdominal multivisceral transplantation. Transplantation 59: 234– 239.
216. Topino, S.,, L. Vincenzi,, I. Mezzaroma,, E. Nicastri,, M. Andreoni, and, M. C. Sirianni. 2001. Correlation between enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and immunofluorescence assay with lytic antigens for detection of antibodies to human herpesvirus 8. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 8: 203– 205.
217. Tosato, G.,, S. Straus,, W. Henle,, S. E. Pike, and, R. M. Blaese. 1985. Characteristic T cell dysfunction in patients with chronic active Epstein-Barr virus infection (chronic infectious mononucleosis). J. Immunol. 134: 3082– 3088.
218. Tsao, L. 2007. The clinicopathologic spectrum of posttransplantation lymphoproliferative disorders. Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 131: 1209– 1218.
219. Vajro P.,, S. Lucariello, and,