1887

Chapter 9 : Complications and Long-Term Sequelae of Infections by

Author: Per-Anders Mårdh1
VIEW AFFILIATIONS HIDE AFFILIATIONS
Affiliations: 1: Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
Content Type: Monograph
Publication Year: 2009

Category: Clinical Microbiology

MyBook is a cheap paperback edition of the original book and will be sold at uniform, low price.

Preview this chapter:
Preview Magnify
Zoom in
Zoomout

Complications and Long-Term Sequelae of Infections by , Page 1 of 2

| /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555815486/9781555814304_Chap09-1.gif /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555815486/9781555814304_Chap09-2.gif

Abstract:

The species in the genus belongs to the family , which consists mostly of gram-negative cocci that divide in two planes at right angles to each other. Gonococci can be detected in Gram-and methylene blue-stained smears of body secretions, in which characteristic “coffee bean” diplococci can be seen. Gonococci may also be detected in the rectum in patients with gonococcal proctitis; in eye secretions in cases of gonococcal conjunctivitis, including in newborns with ophthalmia neonatorum; in the oropharynx of patients with gonococcal pharyngitis; and in skin blisters in cases of disseminated gonococcal infections (DGI) (i.e., gonococcal septicemia). The chapter first focuses on epidemiology of gonorrhea. Next, it concentrates on long-term sequelae of gonorrhea, and specified complications. Gonococcal endometritis is usually regarded as part of an ascending infection reaching the fallopian tubes leading to salpingitis. Since it is difficult to distinguish between these entities clinically, the term pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is used to cover both conditions. Serological studies have demonstrated that gonococci, chlamydia, and mycoplasma organisms are independently associated with tubal factor infertility (TFI). Both gonococci and chlamydia organisms can cause a profound destruction of the tubal epithelium. Ectopic or extrauterine pregnancy may be long-term sequela of gonococcal salpingitis. Urethral stricture is also one of the long-term sequelae of gonorrhea. Finally, the chapter focuses on primary and secondary interventions to reduce complications and sequelae of gonorrhea.

Citation: Mårdh P. 2009. Complications and Long-Term Sequelae of Infections by , p 169-185. In Fratamico P, Smith J, Brogden K (ed), Sequelae and Long-Term Consequences of Infectious Diseases. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815486.ch9
Highlighted Text: Show | Hide
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

Figures

Complications and Long-Term Sequelae of Infections by Neisseria gonorrhoeae
[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555815486.ch09-1,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555815486.ch09-1,properties={foaf_givenname=Per-Anders, foaf_name=Per-Anders Mårdh, foaf_surname=Mårdh, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555815486.ch09-aff1]]}]]
Citation: Mårdh P. 2009. Complications and Long-Term Sequelae of Infections by , p 169-185. In Fratamico P, Smith J, Brogden K (ed), Sequelae and Long-Term Consequences of Infectious Diseases. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815486.ch9
/content/10.1128/9781555815486.ch09.ch09fig01
Figure 1.
Microimmunofluorescent (MIF) and indirect hemagglutination (IHA) antibodies to in males and females attending a venereal disease clinic in Greenland.
10.1128/9781555815486/ch9fig1_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815486/ch9fig1.gif
Image of Figure 1.
Figure 1.

Microimmunofluorescent (MIF) and indirect hemagglutination (IHA) antibodies to in males and females attending a venereal disease clinic in Greenland.

Citation: Mårdh P. 2009. Complications and Long-Term Sequelae of Infections by , p 169-185. In Fratamico P, Smith J, Brogden K (ed), Sequelae and Long-Term Consequences of Infectious Diseases. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815486.ch9
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555815486.ch09.ch09fig02
Figure 2.
Influence of cell-free culture filtrates of (A) and purified gonococcal endotoxin (B) on mucociliary wave activity in tissue cell culture of human fallopian tube epithelium.
10.1128/9781555815486/ch9fig2_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815486/ch9fig2.gif
Image of Figure 2.
Figure 2.

Influence of cell-free culture filtrates of (A) and purified gonococcal endotoxin (B) on mucociliary wave activity in tissue cell culture of human fallopian tube epithelium.

Citation: Mårdh P. 2009. Complications and Long-Term Sequelae of Infections by , p 169-185. In Fratamico P, Smith J, Brogden K (ed), Sequelae and Long-Term Consequences of Infectious Diseases. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815486.ch9
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555815486.ch09.ch09fig03
Figure 3.
Electron micrograph showing gonococci and gonococcal endotoxin blebs, which can be seen as indistinct structures outside the epithelial cells. The endotoxin, in turn, influences the host cells to produce pseudopodia. There is a repelling force between gonococci and host cells, which are both negatively charged. The tip of a cell pseudopodium and the tip of a gonococcal pilus represent a minimal contact surface with a minimum of physical repelling force, which will facilitate the initial phase of an intracellular uptake of gonococci.
10.1128/9781555815486/ch9fig3_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815486/ch9fig3.gif
Image of Figure 3.
Figure 3.

Electron micrograph showing gonococci and gonococcal endotoxin blebs, which can be seen as indistinct structures outside the epithelial cells. The endotoxin, in turn, influences the host cells to produce pseudopodia. There is a repelling force between gonococci and host cells, which are both negatively charged. The tip of a cell pseudopodium and the tip of a gonococcal pilus represent a minimal contact surface with a minimum of physical repelling force, which will facilitate the initial phase of an intracellular uptake of gonococci.

Citation: Mårdh P. 2009. Complications and Long-Term Sequelae of Infections by , p 169-185. In Fratamico P, Smith J, Brogden K (ed), Sequelae and Long-Term Consequences of Infectious Diseases. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815486.ch9
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint

References

/content/book/10.1128/9781555815486.ch09
1. Baczynska, A.,, P. Funch,, J. Fedder,, H. J. Knudsen,, S. Birkelund, and, G. Christiansen. 2007. Morphology of human Fallopian tubes after infection with Mycoplasma genitalium and Mycoplasma hominis—in vitro organ culture study. Hum. Reprod. 22: 968– 979.
2. Baczynska, A.,, H. F. Svenstrup,, J. Fedder,, S. Birkelund, and, G. Christiansen. 2005. The use of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of Mycoplasma hominis antibodies in infertile women serum samples. Hum. Reprod. 20: 1277– 1285.
3. Baldetorp, B.,, P.-A. Mårdh, and, L. Weström. 1983. Studies of ciliated epithelia of the human genital. IV. Mucocilary wave-activity on organ cultures of human fallopian tubes challenged with Mycoplasma hominis. Sex. Trans. Dis. 10: 363– 365.
4. Bastion M. L.,, K. Prakash,, V. C. Siow, and, S. S. Loh. 2006. Bilateral corneal perforation in a sexually active adult male with gonococcal conjunctivitis. Med. J. Malaysia 61: 366– 388.
5. Bhatambare, G. S.,, and R. P. Karyayakarte. 2001. Penicillin-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae at Aurangabad. Indian J. Med. Microbiol. 19: 155– 156.
6. Billings F. T.,, V. A. Evans,, P. S. Wittinger, and, H. E. Rowen. 1991. “Primary” gonococcal meningitis. Sex. Trans. Dis. 18: 129– 130.
7. Boslego, J. W.,, E. C. Tramont,, R. C. Chung,, D. G. McChesney,, J. Ciak,, J. C. Sadoff,, M. V. Piziak,, J. D. Brown,, C. C. Brinton, Jr., and, S. W. Wood. 1991. Efficacy trial of a parenteral gonococcus pilus vaccine in men. Vaccine 9: 154– 162.
8. Brihmer, C.,, P.-A. Mårdh,, I. Kallings,, S. Osser,, M. Robech,, B. Sikström, and, L. Wagner. 1996. Efficiency and safety of azithromycin and lymecycline in the treatment of genital chlamydial infections in women. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 28: 451– 458.
9. Burgis J. T.,, and H. Nawaz III. 2006. Disseminated gonococcal infection in pregnancy presenting as meningitis and dermatitis. Obstet. Gynecol. 108: 798– 801.
10. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2007. Increases in gonorrhea—eight Western states, 2000–2006. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 16: 222– 225.
11. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2007. Update of CDC’s sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines 2006; fluoroquinolones no longer recommended for treatment of gonococcal infections. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Res. 56: 332– 336.
12. Chand, D. V.,, C. K. Hoyen,, E. G. Leonard, and, G. A. McComsey. 2005. First reported case of Neisseria meningitides periorbital celllulitis associated with meningitis. Pediatrics 116: e874– e875.
13. Cohen C. R.,, N. R. Mugo,, S. G. Astete,, R. Odondo,, L. E. Manhart,, J. A. Kielbauch,, W. E. Stamm,, P. G. Waiyaki, and, P. A. Totten. 2005. Detection of Mycoplasma genitalium in women with laparoscopically diagnosed acute salpingitis. Sex. Trans. Infect. 81: 463– 466.
14. Cove-Smith, A.,, and J. L. Klein. 2006. Gonococcal endocarditis: forgotten but not yet gone. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 38: 696– 697.
15. de Souza A. L.,, and A. C. Seguro. 2007. Pericarditis secondary to Neisseria meningitidis. A potential cytokine network pathway. Endocardiography 24: 780– 781.
16. Duchateau, F. X.,, F. Companion,, S. Rosenstingel,, A. Fillion,, B. Bonneton, and, J. Mautz. 2007. Serogroup C meningococcus presenting as pericarditis in a 55-year-old woman without medical history. Ann. Fr. Anesth. Reanim. 26: 452– 454. (In French.)
17. Falcao, M. C.,, S. B. Andrade,, M. E. Ceccon, and, F. A. Costa Vaz. 2007. Neonatal sepsis and meningitis caused by Neisseria meningitidis: a case report. Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. Sao Paulo 49: 191– 194.
18. FDA. 2007. Over-the-counter vaginal contraceptive and spermicide drug products containing nonoxynol-9; required labeling. Final rule. Fed. Regist. 72: 72769– 72785.
19. Fernandez, R.,, P. Nelson,, J. Delgado,, J. Aguilera,, R. Massai,, L. Velasquez,, M. Imarai,, H. G. Croxatto, and, H. Cardenas. 2001. Increased adhesiveness and internalization of Neisseria gonorrhoeae and changes in the expression of epithelial gonococcal receptors in the fallopian tube of copper T and Norplant users. Hum. Reprod. 16: 463– 468.
20. Fink A. S.,, C. A. Kosakowsky,, J. R. Hiatt, and, A. J. Cochran. 1990. Periappendicitis is a significant clinical finding. Am. J. Surg. 159: 564– 568.
21. Garcia, C. S.,, R. Massa,, A. Famiglietti,, C. Vay, and, G. Gutkind. 2004. Unusual phenotypic characteristic of Neisseria gonorrhoeae from male patients who have sex with men. Rev. Argent. Microbiol. 36: 78– 80.
22. Genc, M.,, and P.-A. Mårdh. 1997. Cost-effective treatment of uncomplicated gonorrhoea including co-infection with Chlamydia trachomatis. Pharmacoeconomics 12: 374– 383.
23. Grover, D.,, K. P. Prime,, M. V.,, G. Ridgway, and, R. J. Gilson. 2006. Rectal gonorrhoea in man—is microscopy still a useful tool? Int. J. STD AIDS 17: 277– 279.
24. Guashino, S.,, and G. Ricci. 2002. How, and how efficiently, can we treat Chlamydia trachomatis infections in women? Best Pract. Res. Clin. Obstet. Gynaecol. 16: 875– 888.
25. Hagenfeldt, K.,, and E. Szanto. 1980. Sacroiliitis in women—a late sequela to acute salpingitis. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 138: 1039– 1041.
26. Haggerty, C. L.,, and R. B. Ness. 2006. Epidemiology, pathogenesis and treatment of pelvic inflammatory disease. Expert Rev. Anti Inf. Ther. 4: 235– 237.
27. Harwick, C.,, D. White, and, H. Osman. 2007. An audit of the results of the Roche Amplicor gonorroea test on female genital samples—a cheaper and more sensitive method than culture in an urban English population. Int. J. STD AIDS 18: 347– 348.
28. Hawkins, D. A.,, D. Taylor-Robinson,, B. J. Thomas, and, J. R. Harris. 1986. Microbiological survey of acute epididymitis. Genitourin. Med. 62: 343– 344.
29. Hjelmevoll, S. O.,, M. E. Olsen,, J. U. Sollid,, H. Haaheim,, M. Unemo, and, V. Skogen. 2006. A fast real-time polymerase chain reaction method for sensitive and specific detection of the Neisseria gonorrhoeae porA pseudogene. J. Mol. Diagn. 8: 574– 581.
30. Hobbs, M. M.,, B. van der Pol,, P. Totten,, C. A. Gaydos,, A. Wald,, T. Warren,, R. L. Winer,, R. L. Cook,, C. D. Deal,, M. E. Rogers,, J. Schachter,, K. K. Holmes, and, D. H. Martin. 2008. From the NIH: proceedings of a workshop on the importance of self-obtained vaginal specimens for detection of sexually transmitted infections. Sex. Transm. Dis. 35: 8– 13.
31. Holmes, K. K.,, R. E. Berger, and, E. R. Alexander. 1979. Acute epididymitis: etiology and therapy. Arch. Androl. 3: 309– 316.
32. Hook, E. W.,, and H. H. Handsfield. 1999. Gonococcal infections in the adult, p. 451–466. In K. K. Holmes,, P. F. Sparling,, P.-A. Mårdh,, S. M. Lemon,, W. E. Stamm,, P. Piot, and, J. N. Wasserheit (ed.), Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
33. Hussein, A.,, K. S. Prasad,, D. Bhattacharyya, and, K. El-Bouni. 2005. C2 deficiency primary meningococcal arthritis of the elbow by Neisseria meningitidis in a 12-year-old girl. Infection 35: 287– 288.
34. Jacobson, L.,, and L. Weström. 1969. Objectified diagnosis of acute pelvic inflammatory disease. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 105: 1088– 1098.
35. Jain, S.,, H. N. Win,, V. Chalam, and, L. Yee. 2007. Disseminated gonococcal infection presenting as vasculitic rash: a case report. J. Clin. Pathol. 60: 90– 91.
36. Jurstrand, M.,, J. S. Jensen,, A. Magnusson,, F. Kamvendo, and, H. Fredlund. 2007. A serological role of Mycoplasma genitalium in pelvic inflammatory disease and ectopic pregnancy. Sex. Trans. Dis. 97: 1118– 1125.
37. Källén, B. A.,, and P. Otterblad-Olausson. 2003. Maternal drug use in early pregnancy and infant cardiovascular defect. Reprod. Toxicol. 17: 255– 261.
38. Kennedy, K. J.,, J. Roy, and, P. Lamberth. 2006. Invasive meningococcal disease presenting with cellulites. Med. J. Austr. 184: 421.
39. Kent, C. K.,, J. K. Chaw,, W. Wong,, S. Liska,, S. Gibson,, G. Hubbard, and, J. D. Klausner. 2005. Prevalence of rectal, urethral, and pharyngeal chlamydia and gonorrhea detected in 2 clinical settings among men who have sex with men: San Francisco, California, 2003. Clin. Infect. Dis. 41: 67– 74.
40. Lavelle, S. J.,, K. E. Jones,, H. Mallison, and, A. M. Webb. 2006. Finding, confirming, and managing gonorrhoea in a population screened for chlamydia using the Gen-Probe Aptima Combo2 assay. Sex. Trans. Dis. 82: 221– 224.
41. Le Berre, J. P.,, J. Samy,, E. Garrabé,, I. Imbert,, J. Magnin, and, D. Lechevalier. 2007. Arthritis without urethritis: remember the gonococcus. Rev. Med. Interne 28: 183– 185. (In French.)
42. Little, J. W. 2006. Gonorrhea: update. Oral. Surg. Med. Oral Pathol. Oral Radiol. Endod. 101: 137– 143.
43. Lossik, J. G.,, M. P. Smelzer, and, J. W. Curran. 1982. The value of cervical gram-staining in the diagnosis and treatment of gonorrhea in a venereal disease clinic. Sex. Trans. Dis. 9: 124– 127.
44. Mangold, K. A.,, M. Regner,, M. Tajuddin,, A. M. Tajuddin,, L. Jennings,, H. Du, and, K. L. Kaul. 2007. Neisseria species identification assay for the confirmation of Neisseria gonorrhoeae-positive results of the COBAS Amplicor PCR. J. Clin. Microbiol. 45: 1403– 1409.
45. Marchers, C. A.,, and C. R. Dawson. 1971. Sequelae of neonatal inclusion conjunctivitis and associated disease in parents. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 71: 861– 867.
46. Mårdh, P.-A. 2004. How wide spread are STIs? Need for improvements in surveillance systems and interpretation of test results, as exemplified by chlamydial infections. Rev. Pract. Gynecol. 4: 141– 147.
47. Mårdh, P.-A.,, B. Baldetorp,, C. H. Håkansson,, H. Fritz, and, L. Weström. 1979. Studies on ciliated epithelia of the human genital tract. III. Mucociliary wave pattern in organ cultures of human Fallopian tubes challenged with Neisseria gonorrhoeae and gonococcal endotoxin. Brit. J. Vener. Dis. 55: 256– 264.
48. Mårdh, P.-A.,, T. Buchanan,, P. Christiansen,, D. Danielsson,, I. Lind, and, K. Reimann. 1978. Comparison of four serological tests for detection of gonococcal antibodies in patients with complicated infection, p. 377–381. In G. F. Brooks,, E. C. Gotschlich,, K. K. Holmes,, W. D. Sawyer, and, F. E. Young (ed). Immunology of Neisseria gonorrhoeae. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, DC.
49. Mårdh, P.-A.,, I. Lind,, E. From, and, A-L. Andersen. 1980. Prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis Neisseria gonorrhoeae infections in Greenland. Brit. J. Vener. Dis. 56: 327– 331.
50. Mårdh, P.-A.,, D. Mårtensson, and, L. V. Soltesz. 1978. An effective, simplified culture medium for Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Sex. Trans. Dis. 5: 5– 9.
51. Mårdh, P.-A.,, B. R. Möller,, H. J. Ingerslev,, E. Nüssler,, L. Weström, and, P. Wölner-Hanssen. 1981. Endometritis caused by Chlamydia trachomatis. Brit. J. Vener. Dis. 57: 191– 195.
52. Mårdh, P.-A.,, T. Ripa.,, L. Svensson, and, L. Weström. 1977. Chlamydia trachomatis infection in patients with acute salpingitis N. Engl. J. Med. 296: 1377– 1379.
53. Mårdh, P.-A.,, and L. Weström. 1970. Tubal and cervical culture in acute salpingitis with special references to Mycoplasma hominis and T-strain mycoplasmas. Brit. J. Vener. Dis. 48: 179– 186.
54. Mårdh, P.-A.,, and P. Wölner-Hanssen. 1985. Periappendicitis and chlamydial salpingitis. Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. 160: 304– 306.
55. Matsumoto, T.,, T. Matsumoto,, K. Takahshi,, T. Ikuyama,, D. Yokoo,, Y. Ando,, Y. Sato,, M. Kurashima,, H. Shimokawa, and, S. Yanai. 2006. Multiple doses of cefodizime are necessary for the treatment of Neisseria gonorrhoeae pharyngeal infection. J. Infect. Chemother. 12: 145– 147.
56. McGee, X. A.,, R. L. Jensen,, C. M. Clemens,, D. Taylor-Robinson,, A. P. Johnson, and, C. R. Gregg. 1999. Gonococcal infection of human fallopian tube mucosa in organ culture. Relationship of mucosal tissue TNF-alpha concentration to sloughing of ciliated cells. Sex. Trans. Dis. 26: 160– 165.
57. Mehrany, K.,, J. M. Kist,, W. J. O’Connor, and, D. J. DiCaudo. 2003. Disseminated gonococcemia. Int. J. Dermatol. 42: 208– 209.
58. Miettinen, A.,, P. K. Heinonen,, K. Teisala,, K. Hakkarainen, and, R. Punnonen. 1990. Serological evidence for the role of Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and Mycoplasma hominis in the etiology of tubal factor infertility and ectopic pregnancy. Sex. Trans. Dis. 17: 10– 14.
59. Möller, B. R.,, and E. A. Freundt. 1979. Experimental infection of the genital tract of female grivit monkeys by Mycoplasma hominis: effect of different routes of infection. Infect. Immun. 26: 1123– 1128.
60. Möller, B. R.,, and P.-A. Mårdh. 1980. Experimental epididymitis and urethritis in grivit monkeys provoked by Chlamydia trachomatis. Fertil. Steril. 34: 275– 279.
61. Möller, B. R.,, P.-A. Mårdh,, S. Ahrons, and, E. Nüssler. 1981. Infection with Chlamydia trachomatis, Mycoplasma hominis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae in patients with acute pelvic inflammatory disease. Sex Trans. Dis. 8: 198– 202.
62. Möller, B. R.,, L. Weström,, S. Ahrons,, K. T. Ripa,, L. Svensson,, C. von Mecklenburg,, H. Henrikson, and, P.-A. Mårdh. 1979. Chlamydia trachomatis infection of the Fallopian tubes. Histological finding in two patients. Brit. J. Vener. Dis. 55: 422– 428.
63. Monlca, B. J.,, and S. L. Hillier. 2005. Why nonoxynol-9 may have failed to prevent acquisition of Neisseria gonorrhoeae in clinical trials. Sex. Trans. Dis. 32: 491– 494.
64. Morales, P.,, P. Reyes,, M. Vargas,, M. Rios,, M. Imarai,, H. Cardenas,, H. Croxatto,, P. Orihuela,, R. Vargas,, J. Fuhrer,, J. E. Heckels,, M. Christodoulides, and, L. Velasquez. 2006. Infection of human tube epithelial cells with Neisseria gonorrhoeae protects cells from tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced apoptosis. Infect Immun. 74: 3643– 3650.
65. Morello, J. A.,, and M. Bohnhoff. 1989. Serovars and serum resistance of Neisseria gonorrhoeae from disseminated and uncomplicated infections. J. Infect. Dis. 160: 1012– 1017.
66. Mordhorst, C. H.,, and C. Dawson. 1971. Sequelae of neonatal inclusion conjunctivitis and associated disease in parents. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 71: 861– 867.
67. Morris, S. R.,, J. D. Klausner,, S. P. Buchbinder,, S. L. Wheeler,, B. Koblin,, T. Coates,, M. Chesney, and, G. N. Colfax. 2006. Prevalence and incidence of pharyngeal gonorrhea in a longitudinal sample of men who have sex with men. The EXPLORE study. Clin. Infect. Dis. 43: 1284– 1289.
68. Moss, S.,, and H. Mallison. 2007. The contribution of APTTIMA Combo 2 assay to the diagnosis of gonorrhoea. Int. J. STD/AIDS 18: 551– 554.
69. O’Brien, J. P.,, D. L. Goldenberg, and, P. A. Rice. 1983. Disseminated gonococcal infection: a prospective analysis of 49 patients and a review of pathophysiology and immune mechanisms. Medicine (Baltimore) 62: 395– 406.
70. Olhagen, B. 1983. Urogenital syndromes and spondarthritis. Br. J. Rheumatol. 22: 33– 40.
71. Østergaard, L. 2002. Microbiological aspects of the diagnosis of Chlamydia trachomatis. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 16: 789– 799.
72. Papp, J. R.,, K. Ahrens,, C. Phillips,, C. K. Kent,, S. Phillips, and, J. D. Klausner. 2007. The use and performance of oral rinses to detect pharyngeal Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis infections. Diagn. Microbial. Infect. Dis. 59: 259– 264.
73. Patton, D. L.,, M. Askienazy-Elbhar,, J. Henry-Suchet,, L. A. Campbell,, A. Cappuccio,, W., Tannous,, S. P. Wang, and, C. C. Kuo. 1994. Detection of C. trachomatis in fallopian tube tissue in women with postinfectious tubal infertility. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 171: 95– 101.
74. Peeling, R. W.,, J. Kimani,, F. Plummer,, I. MacLean,, M. Cheang,, J. Bwayo, and, R. C. Brunham. 1997. Antibody to chlamydial hsp60 predicts an increased risk for chlamydial pelvic inflammatory disease. J. Infect. Dis. 175: 1153– 1158.
75. Phupong, V.,, T. Sittisomwong, and, W. Wisawasukmongchol. 2005. Disseminated gonococcal infection during pregnancy. Arch. Gynecol. Obstet. 273: 185– 186.
76. Power, P. M.,, S. C. Ku,, K. Rutter,, M. J. Warren,, E. A. Limnios,, J. W. Tapsall, and, M. P. Jennings. 2007. The phasevariable allele of the pilus glycosylation gene pgIA is not strongly associated with strains of Neisseria gonorrhoeae isolated from patients with disseminated gonococcal infection. Infect. Immun. 75: 3202– 3204.
77. Quarto, M,, S. Barbuti,, C. Germinario,, G. A. Vena, and, C. Foti. 1991. Urethritis caused by Neisseria meningitidis: a case report. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 7: 699– 701.
78. Quintyn, J. C.,, S. Poupelin,, S. Fajoles-Vasseneix, and, G. Brasseur. 2006. Meningococcal endoophthalmitis without meningitis. J. Fr. Ophthalmol. 29: e24.
79. Raja, N. S.,, and N. N. Singh. 2005. Bilateral cellulitis due to Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Staphylococcus aureus: a previously unreported case. J. Med. Microbiol. 54: 609– 911.
80. Rice, P. A. 2005. Gonococcal arthritis (disseminated gonococcal infection). Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am. 19: 853– 861.
81. Rice, P. A.,, and H. H. Handsfield. 1999. Arthritis associated with sexually transmitted diseases, p. 921–935. In K. K. Holmes,, P. F. Sparling,, P.-A. Mårdh,, S. M. Lemon,, W. E. Stamm,, P. Piot, and, J. N. Wasserheit (ed). Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
82. Ripa, K. T.,, and P.-A. Mårdh. 1977. Cultivation of Chlamydia trachomatis in cycloheximide-treated McCoy cells. J. Clin. Microbiol. 6: 328– 331.
83. Ripa, K. T.,, L. Svenssson,, P.-A. Mårdh, and, L. Weström. 1978. Chlamydia trachomatis in gynecological out-patients. Obstet. Gynecol. 52: 698– 702.
84. Rogers, M. E. 2007. Patient-delivered partner treatment and other partner management strategies for sexually transmitted diseases used by New York City healthcare providers. Sex. Trans. Dis. 34: 88– 92.
85. Rondier, J.,, J. Cayla,, C. Fayeton, and, B. Gallet. 1981. Meningococcal arthritis simulating articular gonorrhea. Rev. Rhum. Mal. Osteoartic. 48: 249– 251.
86. Ryder, N.,, and D. Ivens. 2005. Male urethral gonorrhoea—5,700 pounds per positive test? Int. J. STD AIDS 16: 638.
87. Sandström, E.,, and D. Danielsson. 1975. A survey of gonococcal serology, p. 253–259. In D. Danielsson,, I. Juhlin, and, P.-A. Mårdh (ed.), Genital Infections and Their Complications. Almquist and Wiksell International, Stockholm, Sweden.
88. Sandström, E. G.,, J. S. Knapp,, L. B. Reller,, S. E. Thompson,, E. E. Hook III, and, K. K. Holmes. 1984. Serogrouping of Neisseria gonorrhoeae: correlation of serogroup with disseminated gonococcal infection. Sex. Transm. Dis. 11: 77– 80.
89. Schaller, U. C.,, and V. Klauss. 2001. Is Credá’s prophylaxis for ophthalmia neonatorum still valid? Bull. W. H. O. 79: 262– 263.
90. Schwab, L.,, and T. Tizazu. 1985. Destructive epidemic Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Brit. J. Ophthalmol. 69: 525– 529.
91. Sethi, B.,, D. Sharma,, S. D. Mehta,, B. Singh,, M. Smriti,, B. Kumar, and, M. Sharma. 2006. Emergence of ciprofloxacin resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae in north India. Indian J. Med. Res. 123:7 07– 710.
92. Simons, M. P.,, W. M. Nauseef, and, M. A. Apicella. 2005. Interaction of Neisseria gonorrhoeae with adherent polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Infect. Immun. 73: 1971– 1977.
93. Simons, M. P.,, W. M. Nauseef,, T. S. Griffith, and, M. A. Apicella. 2006. Neisseria gonorrhoeae delays the onset of apoptosis in polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Cell. Microbiol. 8: 1780– 1790.
94. Snyder, L. A.,, and N. J. Saunders. 2006. The majority of genes in the pathogenic Neisseria species are present in non-pathogenic Neisseria lactamica, including those designated as “virulence genes.” BMC Genomics 7: 128.
95. Sparling, P. F. 1999. Biology of Neisseria gonorrhoeae, p. 433–450. In K. K. Holmes,, P. F. Sparling,, P.-A. Mårdh,, S. M. Lemon,, W. E. Stamm,, P. Piot, and, J. N. Wasserheit (ed.), Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
96. Soltèsz, L. V.,, and P.-A. Mårdh. 1980. Serum-free liquid medium for Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Cur. Microbiol. 4: 45– 49.
97. Stenberg, K.,, and P.-A. Mårdh. 1990. Chlamydial conjunctivitis in neonates and adults: history, clinic and follow-up of 133 cases. Acta Ophthalmology 68: 651– 657.
98. Sun, H. Y.,, I. C. Chang,, M. J. Chen,, C. C. Hung, and, S. C. Chang. 2004. Acute urethritis and arthritis-dermatitis syndrome due to Neisseria meningitidis. J. Formos. Med. Assoc. 103: 858– 859.
99. Symes, R. J.,, C. J. Catt, and, J. J. Males. 2007. Diffus lamellar keratitis associated with gonococcal keratoconjunctivitis 3 years after laser in situ keratomileusis. J. Cataract Refract. Surg. 33: 323– 325.
100. Tan, C. S.,, F. U. Krishnan,, F. Y. Foo,, J. C. Pan, and, L. W. Voon. 2006. Neisseria meningitidis keratitis in adults: a case series. Ann. Acad. Med. Singapore. 35: 837– 839.
101. Tramont, E. C.,, J. C. Sadoff,, J. W. Boslego,, J. Ciak,, D. W. McChesney,, C. C. Brinton,, S. W. Wood, and, E. Takufuji. 1981. Gonococcal pilus vaccine. Studies of antigenity and inhibition of attachment. Infect. Immun. 68: 881– 888.
102. van Bergen, J. E.,, J. Spaargaren,, H. M. Götz,, I. K. Veldhuijzen,, P. J. Bindels,, T. J. Coenen,, J. Broer,, F. de Groot,, C. J. Hoebe,, J. H. Richardus,, D. van Schaik,, M. Verhooren, and PILOT CT study group. 2006. Population prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae in the Netherlands. Should asymptomatic persons be tested during population-based Chlamydia screening also for gonorrhoea or only if chlamydial infection is found? BMC Infect. Dis. 6: 42.
103. Wang, S. A.,, A. B. Harvey,, S. M. Conner,, A. A. Zaidi,, J. S. Knapp,, W. L. Whittington,, C. del Rio,, F. N. Judson, and, K. K. Holmes. 2007. Antimicrobial resistance for Neisseria gonorrhoeae in the United States, 1988 to 2003: the spread of fluoroquinolone resistance. Ann. Intern. Med. 147: 81– 88.
104. Weber, M.,, and H. Gerber. 1994. Gonorrheal arthritis. Schweiz Rundsch. Med. Prax. 83: 46– 48. (In German.)
105. Weström, L.,, L. P. Bengtsson, and, P.-A. Mårdh. 1976. The risk of pelvic inflammatory disease in women using intrauterine contraceptive devices as compared to non-users. Lancet ii: 221– 224.
106. Weström, L.,, S. Iosif,, S. Svensson, and, P.-A. Mårdh. 1979. Infertility after acute salpingitis with different antibiotics, p. 47–50. In Sexually Transmitted Disease: Reappraisal of the Role of Vibramycin (Doxycycline). Science and Medicine Publishing Co., New York, NY.
107. Weström, L.,, L. P. Bengtsson, and, P.-A. Mårdh. 1981. Incidence, trends, and risks of ectopic pregnancy in a population of women. Br. Med. J. 282: 15– 18.
108. Wölner-Hansen, P.,, L. Weström, and, P.-A. Mårdh. 1980. Perihepatitis in chlamydial salpingitis. Lancet i: 901– 904.
109. Zhang, J.,, G. Li,, A. Bafica,, M. Pantelic,, P. Zhang,, H. Broxmeyer,, Y. Liu,, L. Wetzler,, J. J. He, and, T. Chen. 2005. Neisseria gonorrhoeae enhances infection of dendritic cells by HIV type 1. J. Immunol. 174: 7995– 8002.

Back to top
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Please check the format of the address you have entered.
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error