Highlighted Text:
Show |
Hide
Full text loading...
Chapter 3 : Molecular Detection and Characterization Tools
Authors:
Suresh D. Pillai1,
Everardo Vega2
VIEW AFFILIATIONS
HIDE AFFILIATIONS
Affiliations:
1: Departments of Nutrition and Food Science & Poultry Science, Texas A#x0026;M University, College Station, Texas 77843-2472;
2: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333
Content Type: Monograph
Publication Year:
2007
Category: Environmental Microbiology; Applied and Industrial Microbiology
Book DOI:
10.1128/9781555815769
Chapter DOI:
10.1128/9781555815769.ch3
MyBook is a cheap paperback edition of the original book and will be sold at uniform, low price.
Preview this chapter:
Molecular Detection and Characterization Tools, Page 1 of 2
< Previous page | Next page > /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555815769/9781555813741_Chap03-1.gif /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555815769/9781555813741_Chap03-2.gif
Abstract:
This chapter discusses the technological advances and the current limitations of DNA- and RNA-based methods from a “food perspective.” Consequently, the focus of the chapter is on the application and utility of these methods to detect and characterize microorganisms in foods. The discussion is on the context of whether specific methods can be used to identify the types of microbial contaminants, the extent of contamination, and the possible sources of contamination. A key driving force in the development of new-generation detection and characterization tools is the extraordinary amount of genomic and proteomic information that is now publicly available. The criticality of regulatory pressure in catalyzing the commercialization of molecular detection tools is evident when one compares the availability of commercial kits for the food industry to that for the drinking water industry. A majority of the molecular detection methods, however, only provide qualitative information about the presence or absence of specific pathogens. Paradigm-shifting changes in sequencing technologies have improved the sequencing of organisms, which, in turn, has greatly benefited microbial molecular detection technologies such as gene amplification and probe-based technologies. Improved surveillance and tracking studies will lead to the identification of many of these pathogens that could be classified as emerging or reemerging pathogens. The current 16S rRNA gene-based fingerprinting method (termed riboprinting), though automated and sophisticated, is still far from being as discriminatory as pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE).
Citation:
Pillai S, Vega E.
2007.
Molecular Detection and Characterization Tools,
p 65-91.
In
Santo Domingo J, Sadowsky M, Doyle M (ed),
Microbial Source Tracking.
ASM Press, Washington, DC.
doi: 10.1128/9781555815769.ch3
Key Concept Ranking
- Nucleic Acid Amplification Techniques
- 0.7421161
- Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing
- 0.54393697
- Environmental Microbiology
- 0.5385053
- Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA
- 0.4524714
- Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism
- 0.4524714
0.7421161
Figures
Molecular Detection and Characterization Tools
[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555815769.ch03-1,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555815769.ch03-1,properties={foaf_givenname=Suresh D., foaf_name=Suresh D. Pillai, foaf_surname=Pillai, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555815769.ch03-aff1]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555815769.ch03-2,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555815769.ch03-2,properties={foaf_givenname=Everardo, foaf_name=Everardo Vega, foaf_surname=Vega, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555815769.ch03-aff2]]}]]
Citation:
Pillai S, Vega E.
2007.
Molecular Detection and Characterization Tools,
p 65-91.
In
Santo Domingo J, Sadowsky M, Doyle M (ed),
Microbial Source Tracking.
ASM Press, Washington, DC.
doi: 10.1128/9781555815769.ch3
/content/10.1128/9781555815769.ch03.ch03fig01
FIGURE 1
Challenges of detecting low numbers of target organisms in food and environmental samples as compared to clinical samples. org, organisms.
10.1128/9781555815769/f0076-01_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815769/f0076-01.gif
FIGURE 1
Challenges of detecting low numbers of target organisms in food and environmental samples as compared to clinical samples. org, organisms.
Citation:
Pillai S, Vega E.
2007.
Molecular Detection and Characterization Tools,
p 65-91.
In
Santo Domingo J, Sadowsky M, Doyle M (ed),
Microbial Source Tracking.
ASM Press, Washington, DC.
doi: 10.1128/9781555815769.ch3
/content/10.1128/9781555815769.ch03.ch03eqn1
Untitled
10.1128/9781555815769/f0080-01_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815769/f0080-01.gif
Untitled
Citation:
Pillai S, Vega E.
2007.
Molecular Detection and Characterization Tools,
p 65-91.
In
Santo Domingo J, Sadowsky M, Doyle M (ed),
Microbial Source Tracking.
ASM Press, Washington, DC.
doi: 10.1128/9781555815769.ch3
/content/10.1128/9781555815769.ch03.ch03fig02
FIGURE 2
The substrate-activity-function-virulence relationships between pathogen characteristics and human health effects (modified from references
39
and
44
).
10.1128/9781555815769/f0083-01_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815769/f0083-01.gif
FIGURE 2
The substrate-activity-function-virulence relationships between pathogen characteristics and human health effects (modified from references 39 and 44 ).
Citation:
Pillai S, Vega E.
2007.
Molecular Detection and Characterization Tools,
p 65-91.
In
Santo Domingo J, Sadowsky M, Doyle M (ed),
Microbial Source Tracking.
ASM Press, Washington, DC.
doi: 10.1128/9781555815769.ch3
/content/10.1128/9781555815769.ch03.ch03fig03
FIGURE 3
Interrelationships between food safety, water quality, and environmental microbiology.
10.1128/9781555815769/f0085-01_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815769/f0085-01.gif
FIGURE 3
Interrelationships between food safety, water quality, and environmental microbiology.
Citation:
Pillai S, Vega E.
2007.
Molecular Detection and Characterization Tools,
p 65-91.
In
Santo Domingo J, Sadowsky M, Doyle M (ed),
Microbial Source Tracking.
ASM Press, Washington, DC.
doi: 10.1128/9781555815769.ch3
References
/content/book/10.1128/9781555815769.ch03
1.
Altekruse, S. F.,, M. L. Cohen, and, D. L. Swerdlow. 1997. Emerging foodborne diseases. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 3: 285– 293.
2.
AOAC International. 2003. Performance Tested Methods. [Online.] http://www.aoac.org/ testkits/testedmethods.html.
3.
Baselski, V. S. 1996. The role of molecular diagnostics in the clinical microbiology laboratory. Clin. Lab. Med. 16: 49– 60.
4.
Bavykin, S. G.,, J. P. Akowski,, V. M. Zakhariev,, V. E. Barsky,, A. N. Perov, and, A. D. Mirzabekov. 2001. Portable system for microbial sample preparation and oligonucleotide microarray analysis. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67: 922– 928.
5.
Belgrader, P.,, S. Young,, B. Yuan,, M. Primeau,, L. A. Christel,, F. Pourahmadi, and, M. A. Northrup. 2001. A battery-powered notebook thermal cycler for rapid multiplex realtime PCR analysis. Anal. Chem. 73: 286– 289.
6.
Bernardo, K.,, N. Pakulat,, M. Macht,, O. Krut,, H. Seifert,, S. Fleer,, F. Hunger, and, M. Kronke. 2002. Identification and discrimination of Staphylococcus aureus strains using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry. Proteomics 2: 747– 753.
7.
Bowtell, D., and, J. Sambrook (ed.). 2003. DNA Microarrays: a Molecular Cloning Manual. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.
8.
Brekke, O. H., and, I. Sandlie. 2003. Therapeutic antibodies for human diseases at the dawn of the twenty-first century. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 2: 52– 62.
9.
Call, D. R.,, F. J. Brockman, and, D. P. Chandler. 2001. Detecting and genotyping Escherichia coli O157:H7 using multiplexed PCR and nucleic acid microarrays. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 67: 71– 80.
10.
Call, D. R.,, M. K. Borucki, and, T. E. Besser. 2003. Mixed genome microarrays reveal multiple serotype and lineage-specific differences among strains of Listeria monocytogenes. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41: 632– 639.
11.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2003. Hepatitis A outbreak associated with green onions at a restaurant—Monaca, Pennsylvania, 2003. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 52: 1155– 1157.
12.
Chandler, D. P., and, A. E. Jarrell. 2003. Enhanced nucleic acid capture and flow cytom-etry detection with peptide nucleic acid probes and tunable-surface microparticles. Anal. Biochem. 312: 182– 190.
13.
Chandler, D. P., and, A. E. Jarrell. 2005. Taking arrays from the lab to the field: trying to make sense of the unknown. BioTechniques 38: 591– 600.
14.
Chizhikov, V.,, A. Rasooly,, K. Chumakov, and, D. D. Levy. 2001. Microarray analysis of microbial virulence factors. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67: 3258– 3263.
15.
Cho, J. C., and, J. M. Tiedje. 2002. Quantitative detection of microbial genes by using DNA microarrays. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68: 1425– 1430.
16.
Desai, M.,, E. J. Threlfall, and, J. Stanley. 2001. Fluorescent amplified-fragment length polymorphism subtyping of the Salmonella enterica serovar Enteriditis phage type 4 clone complex. J. Clin. Microbiol. 39: 201– 206.
17.
Enright, M. C., and, B. G. Spratt. 1999. Multilocus sequence typing. Trends Microbiol. 7: 482– 487.
18.
Environmental Protection Agency. 2001. Method 1623: Cryptosporidium and Giardia in Water by Filtration/IMS/FA. EPA 821-R-01-025. [Online.] http://www.epa.gov/ waterscience/methods/1623.pdf.
19.
Foley, S. L., and, R. D. Walker. 2004. Methods for differentiation among bacterial food-borne pathogens, p. 303- 316. In R. C. Beier, S. D. Pillai, T. D. Phillips, and, R. L. Ziprin ( ed.), Preharvest and Postharvest Food Safety: Contemporary Issues and Future Directions. IFT Press Series. Blackwell Publishing, Ames, Iowa.
20.
Fraser, C. M., and, M. R. Dando. 2001. Genomics and future biological weapons: the need for preventive action by the biomedical community. Nat. Genet. 29: 253– 256.
21.
Garaizar, J.,, N. Lopez-Molina,, I. Laconcha,, D. L. Baggesen,, A. Rementeria,, A. Vivanco,, A. Audicana, and, I. Perales. 2000. Suitability of PCR fingerprinting, infrequent-restriction-site PCR, and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, combined with computerized gel analysis, in library typing of Salmonella enterica serovar Enteriditis. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66: 5273– 5281.
22.
Gendel, S. M., and, J. Ulaszek. 2000. Ribotype analysis of strain distribution in Listeria monocytogenes. J. Food Prot. 63: 179– 185.
23.
Gilles, P. N.,, D. J. Wu,, C. B. Forster,, P. J. Dillon, and, S. J. Chanock. 1999. Single nucleotide polymorphic discrimination by an electronic dot blot assay on semiconductor microchips. Nat. Biotechnol. 17: 365– 370.
24.
Guatelli, J. C.,, T. R. Gingeras, and, D. D. Richman. 1989. Nucleic acid amplification in vitro: detection of sequences with low copy numbers and application to diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2: 217– 226.
25.
Hutchinson, A. M. 1995. Evanescent wave biosensors. Real-time analysis of biomolecular interactions. J. Mol. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 3: 47– 54.
26.
International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium. 2004. Finishing the euchro-matic sequence of the human genome. Nature 431: 931– 945.
27.
Ko, G.,, T. L. Cromeans, and, M. D. Sobsey. 2003. Detection of infectious adenovirus in cell culture by mRNA reverse transcription-PCR. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69: 7377– 7384.
28.
Kreader, C. A. 1996. Relief of amplification inhibition in PCR by bovine serum albumin or T4 gene 32 protein. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62: 1102– 1106.
29.
Kwoh, D. Y.,, G. R. Davis,, K. M. Whitfield,, H. I. Chappelle,, L.J. DiMichele, and, T. R. Gingeras. 1989. Transcription-based amplification and detection of amplified human immunodeficiency virus type 1 with a bead based sandwich hybridization format. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86: 1173– 1177.
30.
Lakowicz, J. R. 1999. Principles of Fluorescent Spectroscopy, 2nd ed., p. 698. Plenum Press, New York, N.Y.
31.
Lammerding, A. M., and, G. M. Paoli. 1997. Quantitative risk assessment: an emerging tool for emerging foodborne pathogens. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 3: 483– 487.
32.
Liu, Y.,, J. Ye, and, Y. Li. 2003. Rapid detection of Escherichia coli O157:H7 inoculated in ground beef, chicken carcass, and lettuce samples with an immunomagnetic chemilu-minescence fiber-optic biosensor. J. Food Prot. 66: 512– 517.
33.
Loge, F. J.,, D. E. Thompson, and, D. R. Call. 2002. PCR detection of specific pathogens: a risk based analysis. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36: 2754– 2759.
34.
Matos, A.,, J. L. Garland, and, F. W. Fett. 2002. Composition and physiological profiling of sprout-associated microbial communities. J. Food Prot. 65: 1903– 1908.
35.
Mead, P. S.,, L. Slutsker,, V. Dietz,, L. F. McCaig,, J. S. Brese,, C. Shapiro,, P. M. Griffin, and, R. V. Tauxe. 1999. Food-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 5: 607– 625.
36.
Molina, M. A.,, J. L. Ramos, and, M. Espinosa-Urgel. 2003. Plant-associated biofilms. Rev. Environ. Sci. Biotechnol. 2: 99– 108.
37.
National Research Council. 2001. Classifying Drinking Water Contaminants for Regulatory Consideration. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
38.
Nauerby, B.,, K. Pedersen,, H. H. Dietz, and, M. Madsen. 2000. Comparison of Danish isolates of Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis PT9a and PT11 from hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) and humans by plasmid profiling and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38: 3631– 3635.
39.
Nazarenko, I.,, B. Lowe,, M. Darfler,, P. Ikonomi,, D. Schuster, and, A. Rashtchian. 2002. Multiplex quantitative PCR using self-quenched primers labeled with a single fluorophore. Nucleic Acids Res. 30: 37– 43.
40.
Pandey, A., and, M. Mann. 2000. Proteomics to study genes and genomes. Nature 405: 837– 846.
41.
Pena, J.,, S. C. Ricke,, C. L. Shermer,, T. Gibbs, and, S. D. Pillai. 1999. A gene amplification-hybridization sensor based methodology to rapidly screen aerosol samples for specific bacterial gene sequences. J. Environ. Sci. Health A 34: 529– 556.
42.
Pillai, S.D. 2004. Molecular methods for microbial detection, p. 455. In R. C. Beier,, S. D. Pillai,, T. D. Phillips, and, R. L. Ziprin ( ed.) Pre-harvest and Post-Harvest Food Safety: Contemporary Issues and Future Directions. Institute of Food Technologists/Iowa State Press, Ames, Iowa.
43.
Pillai, S. D. Bacteriophages as indicators. In S. Goyal ( ed.), Food Virology, in press. Kluwer Publishers, Norwell, Mass.
44.
Pillai, S. D., and, J. Totten. 2003. Molecular methods for microbial detection and characterization, p. 255- 264. In A. Pandey ( ed.), Concise Encyclopedia of Bioresource Technology. The Harworth Press, New York, N.Y.
45.
Pillai, S. D., and, S. C. Ricke. 1995. Strategies to accelerate the applicability of gene amplification protocols for pathogen detection in meat and meat products. Crit. Rev.Microbiol. 21: 239– 261.
46.
Pillai, S. D.,, K. L. Josephson,, R. L. Bailey,, C. P. Gerba, and, I. L. Pepper. 1991. Rapid method for processing soil samples for polymerase chain reaction amplification of specific gene sequences. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 57: 2283– 2286.
47.
Roe, M. T. 2002. Prevalence of Class 1 and Class 2 Integrons in Poultry Processing and a Natural Water Ecosystem. M.S. thesis. Texas A&M University, College Station, Tex.
48.
Rosenblum, L. S.,, I. R. Mirkin,, D. T. Allen,, S. Safford, and, S. C. Hadler. 1990. A multifocal outbreak of Hepatitis A traced back to commercially distributed lettuce. Am. J. Public Health 80: 1075– 1079.
49.
Sair, A. I.,, D. H. D’Souza, and, L. A. Jaykus. 2002. Human enteric viruses as causes of foodborne disease. Comp. Rev. Food Sci. Food Safety 1: 73– 89.
50.
Smith, J. L., and, P. M. Fratamico. 1995. Factors involved in the emergence and persistence of food-borne diseases. J. Food Prot. 58: 696– 708.
51.
Stintzi, A. 2003. Gene expression profile of Campylobacter jejuni in response to growth temperature variation. J. Bacteriol. 185: 2009– 2016.
52.
Strategic Consulting. 2000. Pathogen-Testing in the U.S. Food Industry. Strategic Consulting, Woodstock, Vt.
53.
Swaminathan, B.,, T.J. Barrett,, S. B. Hunter, and, R. V. Tauxe. 2001. PulseNet: the molecular subtyping network for foodborne bacterial disease surveillance, United States. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 7: 382– 389.
54.
Thelwell, N.,, S. Millington,, A. Solinas,, J. Booth, and, T. Brown. 2000. Mode of action and application of Scorpion primers to mutation detection. Nucleic Acids Res. 28: 3752– 3761.
55.
Tringe, S. G.,, C. Von Mering,, A. Kobayashi,, A. A. Salamov,, K. Chen,, H. W. Chang,, M. Podar,, J. M. Short,, E. J. Mathur,, J. C. Detter,, P. Bork,, P. Hugenholtz, and, E. M. Rubin. 2005. Comparative metagenomics of microbial communities. Science 308: 554– 557.
56.
Vasavada, P. C. 2001. Getting really rapid test results. Food Safety 7: 28– 38.
57.
Vega, E.,, J. Smith,, J. Garland,, A. Matos, and , S. D. Pillai. Variability of virus attachment patterns to butterhead lettuce. J. Food Prot., in press.
58.
Venter, J. C.,, K. Remington,, J. F. Heidelberg,, A. L. Halpern,, D. Rusch,, J. A. Eisen,, D. Wu,, I. Paulsen,, K. E. Nelson,, W. Nelson,, D. E. Fouts,, S. Levy,, A. H. Knap,, M. W. Lomas,, K. Nealson,, O. White,, J. Peterson,, J. Hoffman,, R. Parsons,, H. Baden-Tillson,, C. Pfannkoch,, Y. H. Rogers, and, H. O. Smith. 2004. Environmental genome shotgun sequencing of the Sargasso Sea. Science 304: 66– 74.
59.
Wang, D.,, A. Urisman,, Y. Liu,, M. Springer,, T. G. Ksiazek,, D. D. Erdman,, E. R. Mardis,, M. Hickenbotham,, V. Magrini,, J. Eldred,, J. P. Latreille,, R. K. Wilson,, D. Ganem, and, J. L. DeRisil. 2003. Viral discovery and sequence recovery using DNA microarrays. PLoS Biol. 1: 257– 260.
60.
Wei, Y.,, J. M. Lee,, C. Richmond,, F. R. Blattner,, J. Rafalski, and, R. A. LaRossa. 2001. High density microarray-mediated gene expression profiling of Escherichia coli. J. Bacteriol. 183: 545– 556.
61.
Welsh, J., and, M. McClelland. 1990. Fingerprinting genomes using PCR with arbitrary primers. Nucleic Acids Res. 18: 7213– 7218.
62.
Widdowson, M. A.,, A. Sulka,, S. N. Bulens,, R. S. Beard,, S. S. Chaves,, R. Hammond,, E. D. Salehi,, E. Swanson,, J. Totaro,, R. Woron,, P. S. Mead,, J. S. Bresee,, S. S. Monroe, and, R. I. Glass. 2005. Norovirus and foodborne disease, United States, 1991-2000. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 11: 95– 102.
63.
Widmer, K. W.,, K. H. Oshima, and, S. D. Pillai. 2002. Identification of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts by an artificial neural network approach. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68: 1115– 1121.
64.
Williams, J. G.,, A. R. Kubelik,, K.J. Livak,, J. A. Rafalski, and, S. V. Tingey. 1990. DNA polymorphisms amplified by arbitrary primers are useful as genetic markers. Nucleic Acids Res. 18: 6531– 6535.
65.
Wilson, I. G. 1997. Inhibition and facilitation of nucleic acid amplification. Appl. Environ.Microbiol. 63: 3741– 3751.
66.
Wren, B. W. 2000. Microbial genome analysis: insights into virulence, host adaptation and evolution. Nat. Rev. Genet. 1: 30– 39.
Tables
Molecular Detection and Characterization Tools
[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555815769.ch03-1,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555815769.ch03-1,properties={foaf_givenname=Suresh D., foaf_name=Suresh D. Pillai, foaf_surname=Pillai, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555815769.ch03-aff1]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555815769.ch03-2,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555815769.ch03-2,properties={foaf_givenname=Everardo, foaf_name=Everardo Vega, foaf_surname=Vega, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555815769.ch03-aff2]]}]]
Citation:
Pillai S, Vega E.
2007.
Molecular Detection and Characterization Tools,
p 65-91.
In
Santo Domingo J, Sadowsky M, Doyle M (ed),
Microbial Source Tracking.
ASM Press, Washington, DC.
doi: 10.1128/9781555815769.ch3
/content/10.1128/9781555815769.ch03.ch03tab01
Table 1
Partial listing of conventional and real-time PCR-based commercial pathogen detection kits for the food industry
Table 1
Partial listing of conventional and real-time PCR-based commercial pathogen detection kits for the food industry
Citation:
Pillai S, Vega E.
2007.
Molecular Detection and Characterization Tools,
p 65-91.
In
Santo Domingo J, Sadowsky M, Doyle M (ed),
Microbial Source Tracking.
ASM Press, Washington, DC.
doi: 10.1128/9781555815769.ch3
/content/10.1128/9781555815769.ch03.ch03tab02
Table 2
Characteristics of contemporary bacterial differentiation methods
a
Table 2
Characteristics of contemporary bacterial differentiation methods a
Citation:
Pillai S, Vega E.
2007.
Molecular Detection and Characterization Tools,
p 65-91.
In
Santo Domingo J, Sadowsky M, Doyle M (ed),
Microbial Source Tracking.
ASM Press, Washington, DC.
doi: 10.1128/9781555815769.ch3