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Chapter 28 : Papillomavirus

Author: William Bonnez
Content Type: Reference
Publication Year: 2009

Category: Viruses and Viral Pathogenesis

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Abstract:

Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) primarily infect the stratified squamous epithelia of humans. Papillomavirus genotypes are classified as distinct if their genomes have less than 90% homology in the DNA sequences of the L1 open reading frame (ORF), which encodes the major capsid protein. The study of papillomavirus L1 VLPs has shown that serotypes generally correspond to genotypes. Papillomavirus genomes share the same general organization, which usually consists of eight ORFs, all located on the same strand. Three major types of cutaneous warts are recognized: deep plantar warts, common warts, and flat or plane warts. Screening strategies for anal cancer based on anal cytology have been proposed. Present therapeutic options are directed at eradicating the disease, not the infection, by destroying the lesions with physical or chemical means or by stimulating an inflammatory or immune response. A majority of these treatments have been developed empirically, but few have been thoroughly tested, and none is completely satisfactory. A section reviews the most commonly used and best-evaluated forms of treatment for HPV diseases. The current HPV VLP vaccine has not shown any therapeutic effect. Photodynamic laser therapy is an evolving and successful approach for the treatment of cutaneous warts, genital HPV diseases, and recurrent respiratory papillomatosis. The simplest and most effective office-based treatment modalities are cryotherapy and trichloroacetic acid (TCA) application. Cryotherapy, TCA application, electrosurgery, coldblade excision, and laser surgery are all appropriate for the treatment of condyloma acuminatum in the pregnant patient.

Citation: Bonnez W. 2009. Papillomavirus, p 603-644. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch28
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Papillomavirus
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Citation: Bonnez W. 2009. Papillomavirus, p 603-644. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch28
/content/10.1128/9781555815981.ch28.ch28fig01
FIGURE 1
Phylogenetic tree of papillomaviruses. The tree was established on the basis of DNA sequence homology in the L1 ORF. Abbreviations: COPV, canine oral papillomavirus; CCPV, common chimpanzee papillomavirus; CRPV, cottontail rabbit papillomavirus; DPV, deer papillomavirus; EcPV, (horse) papillomavirus; EEPV, European elk papillomavirus; FdPV, (cat) papillomavirus; FPV, (chaffinch) papillomavirus; HaOPV, hamster oral papillomavirus; MnPV, (rodent) papillomavirus; OvPV, ovine papillomavirus; PCPV, pygmy chimpanzee papillomavirus; PePV, (parrot) papillomavirus; PsPV, (porpoise) papillomavirus; RhPV, rhesus monkey papillomavirus; ROPV, rabbit oral papillomavirus. (Tree slightly modified from reference with permission of Elsevier.)
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FIGURE 1

Phylogenetic tree of papillomaviruses. The tree was established on the basis of DNA sequence homology in the L1 ORF. Abbreviations: COPV, canine oral papillomavirus; CCPV, common chimpanzee papillomavirus; CRPV, cottontail rabbit papillomavirus; DPV, deer papillomavirus; EcPV, (horse) papillomavirus; EEPV, European elk papillomavirus; FdPV, (cat) papillomavirus; FPV, (chaffinch) papillomavirus; HaOPV, hamster oral papillomavirus; MnPV, (rodent) papillomavirus; OvPV, ovine papillomavirus; PCPV, pygmy chimpanzee papillomavirus; PePV, (parrot) papillomavirus; PsPV, (porpoise) papillomavirus; RhPV, rhesus monkey papillomavirus; ROPV, rabbit oral papillomavirus. (Tree slightly modified from reference with permission of Elsevier.)

Citation: Bonnez W. 2009. Papillomavirus, p 603-644. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch28
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FIGURE 2
Structure of the papillomavirus virion. A cryoelectron micrograph of the HPV-1 capsid is shown (diameter, 60 nm). (Reprinted from reference with permission.)
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FIGURE 2

Structure of the papillomavirus virion. A cryoelectron micrograph of the HPV-1 capsid is shown (diameter, 60 nm). (Reprinted from reference with permission.)

Citation: Bonnez W. 2009. Papillomavirus, p 603-644. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch28
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FIGURE 3
HPV genetic maps. (Bottom) linearized HPV-16 DNA map; (middle) linearized HPV-11 DNA map; (top) HPV-11 transcription map. By convention, the map origin of papillomaviruses is defined as the position homologous to the HpaI single restriction site of HPV-1. The open boxes correspond to the ORFs in the respective translation frames. The numbers above each ORF indicate the nucleotide position of the preceding stop codon (left solid vertical line) /start codon (dashed vertical line)/stop codon (right vertical line). Each HPV-11 mRNA is depicted with its cap site (solid circle), exons (thick line), introns (thin angled line), and poly(A) site (arrow). The putative corresponding proteins are indicated on the right of the mRNAs.
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Image of FIGURE 3
FIGURE 3

HPV genetic maps. (Bottom) linearized HPV-16 DNA map; (middle) linearized HPV-11 DNA map; (top) HPV-11 transcription map. By convention, the map origin of papillomaviruses is defined as the position homologous to the HpaI single restriction site of HPV-1. The open boxes correspond to the ORFs in the respective translation frames. The numbers above each ORF indicate the nucleotide position of the preceding stop codon (left solid vertical line) /start codon (dashed vertical line)/stop codon (right vertical line). Each HPV-11 mRNA is depicted with its cap site (solid circle), exons (thick line), introns (thin angled line), and poly(A) site (arrow). The putative corresponding proteins are indicated on the right of the mRNAs.

Citation: Bonnez W. 2009. Papillomavirus, p 603-644. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch28
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FIGURE 4
Organization of the HPV-16 URR. The URR begins after the stop codon of the L1 ORF and finishes at the cap site of the E6 mRNAs. The positions of some of the potential binding sites of various viral and cellular factors are indicated by the symbols placed on and below the line. E1BS, E1 binding site; E2BS, E2 binding site; origin of replication; TATA, TATA box; GRE, glucocorticoid responsive element. AP-1, Oct-1, NF-1, NF-κB, Sp1, TEF-1, TFIID, and YY1 are cellular transcription factors.
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Image of FIGURE 4
FIGURE 4

Organization of the HPV-16 URR. The URR begins after the stop codon of the L1 ORF and finishes at the cap site of the E6 mRNAs. The positions of some of the potential binding sites of various viral and cellular factors are indicated by the symbols placed on and below the line. E1BS, E1 binding site; E2BS, E2 binding site; origin of replication; TATA, TATA box; GRE, glucocorticoid responsive element. AP-1, Oct-1, NF-1, NF-κB, Sp1, TEF-1, TFIID, and YY1 are cellular transcription factors.

Citation: Bonnez W. 2009. Papillomavirus, p 603-644. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch28
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FIGURE 5
Epithelial growth factor (EGF) receptor, phorbol ester, and HPV E5 protein interactions. (A) Upon exposure to a phorbol ester, phosphokinase C (PKC) gets activated and phosphorylates the EGF receptor. This allows the binding of a complex of proteins, Grb2 and Sos, that are brought in contact with the cytoplasmic membrane. The Ras protein becomes activated by Sos after exchange of GDP for GTP. This is the trigger for the actuation of a cascade of protein kinases, Raf-1, MEK, MAPK, that ultimately induces the expression of the transcription factor AP-1, which is made up of two proto-oncoproteins, Fos and Jun. The net result is a stimulation of cell proliferation and differentiation. (B) Under physiological conditions, the EGF receptor is activated by the binding of its ligand, EGF. Autophosphorylation ensues, which precipitates the sequence of events detailed in panel A. Eventually, the process stops when the EGF receptor becomes internalized by endocytosis. As the endosome becomes acidic, the EGF receptor is degraded. The acidification of the endosome is dependent on a proton pump that includes a p16 protein subunit. Papillomavirus E5 inactivates the proton pump by binding to the p16 subunit. It is believed that the undegraded EGF receptor is then recycled to the cytoplasmic membrane. The overall effect is an increase of cellular differentiation and proliferation.
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FIGURE 5

Epithelial growth factor (EGF) receptor, phorbol ester, and HPV E5 protein interactions. (A) Upon exposure to a phorbol ester, phosphokinase C (PKC) gets activated and phosphorylates the EGF receptor. This allows the binding of a complex of proteins, Grb2 and Sos, that are brought in contact with the cytoplasmic membrane. The Ras protein becomes activated by Sos after exchange of GDP for GTP. This is the trigger for the actuation of a cascade of protein kinases, Raf-1, MEK, MAPK, that ultimately induces the expression of the transcription factor AP-1, which is made up of two proto-oncoproteins, Fos and Jun. The net result is a stimulation of cell proliferation and differentiation. (B) Under physiological conditions, the EGF receptor is activated by the binding of its ligand, EGF. Autophosphorylation ensues, which precipitates the sequence of events detailed in panel A. Eventually, the process stops when the EGF receptor becomes internalized by endocytosis. As the endosome becomes acidic, the EGF receptor is degraded. The acidification of the endosome is dependent on a proton pump that includes a p16 protein subunit. Papillomavirus E5 inactivates the proton pump by binding to the p16 subunit. It is believed that the undegraded EGF receptor is then recycled to the cytoplasmic membrane. The overall effect is an increase of cellular differentiation and proliferation.

Citation: Bonnez W. 2009. Papillomavirus, p 603-644. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch28
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FIGURE 6
Model of the biological interactions of high-risk proteins with the cell cycle and apoptosis (see text for details). Symbols: ⊕, activation; ⊖, inhibition. Thick lines with open arrowheads (➨) indicate up-regulation; the same lines with a broken end denote down-regulation. Thick gray lines represent the regulations in normal cells, whereas the thick black lines show the regulations in HPV-infected cells; thin arrows (➜) show direct interactions. Note that the symbols are not drawn proportional to the protein molecular weights and that the protein complex aggregations are not necessarily concomitant or involve the direct protein-to-protein contacts shown. DP, differentiation-regulated transcription factor polypeptide; HDAC, histone deacetylase; mdm2, murine double minute 2 protein; DLG, disk large.
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Image of FIGURE 6
FIGURE 6

Model of the biological interactions of high-risk proteins with the cell cycle and apoptosis (see text for details). Symbols: ⊕, activation; ⊖, inhibition. Thick lines with open arrowheads (➨) indicate up-regulation; the same lines with a broken end denote down-regulation. Thick gray lines represent the regulations in normal cells, whereas the thick black lines show the regulations in HPV-infected cells; thin arrows (➜) show direct interactions. Note that the symbols are not drawn proportional to the protein molecular weights and that the protein complex aggregations are not necessarily concomitant or involve the direct protein-to-protein contacts shown. DP, differentiation-regulated transcription factor polypeptide; HDAC, histone deacetylase; mdm2, murine double minute 2 protein; DLG, disk large.

Citation: Bonnez W. 2009. Papillomavirus, p 603-644. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch28
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FIGURE 7
Model of HPV DNA replication and encapsidation.
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Image of FIGURE 7
FIGURE 7

Model of HPV DNA replication and encapsidation.

Citation: Bonnez W. 2009. Papillomavirus, p 603-644. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch28
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FIGURE 8
Drawing of the histologic features of normal skin and of a wart.
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Image of FIGURE 8
FIGURE 8

Drawing of the histologic features of normal skin and of a wart.

Citation: Bonnez W. 2009. Papillomavirus, p 603-644. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch28
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FIGURE 9
Pap smear demonstrating koilocytic atypia. In contrast to the histologic specimen, by cytology koilocytes have one or two relatively large, smooth, oval nuclei, surrounded by a very large halo of amorphous substance. (Courtesy of Clara E. Mesonero, Cape Cod Hospital, Cape Cod, MA.)
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Image of FIGURE 9
FIGURE 9

Pap smear demonstrating koilocytic atypia. In contrast to the histologic specimen, by cytology koilocytes have one or two relatively large, smooth, oval nuclei, surrounded by a very large halo of amorphous substance. (Courtesy of Clara E. Mesonero, Cape Cod Hospital, Cape Cod, MA.)

Citation: Bonnez W. 2009. Papillomavirus, p 603-644. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch28
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FIGURE 10
Histology of a cutaneous wart (hemalun-eosin stain; low-power view). The darkly stained layer is the stratum granulosum. Koilocytes are profuse and disrupt the stratum granulosum. The persistence of nuclei in the stratum corneum is a feature of parakeratosis. Note the thick stratum corneum. (Courtesy of Clara E. Mesonero, Cape Cod Hospital, Cape Cod, MA.)
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Image of FIGURE 10
FIGURE 10

Histology of a cutaneous wart (hemalun-eosin stain; low-power view). The darkly stained layer is the stratum granulosum. Koilocytes are profuse and disrupt the stratum granulosum. The persistence of nuclei in the stratum corneum is a feature of parakeratosis. Note the thick stratum corneum. (Courtesy of Clara E. Mesonero, Cape Cod Hospital, Cape Cod, MA.)

Citation: Bonnez W. 2009. Papillomavirus, p 603-644. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch28
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FIGURE 11
Histology of condyloma acuminatum (hemalun-eosin stain; high-power view). The figure demonstrates many koilocytes in the stratum spinosum. Koilocytes are relatively large cells with a shrunken, irregular nucleus surrounded by a halo. (Courtesy of Clara E. Mesonero, Cape Cod Hospital, Cape Cod, MA.)
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Image of FIGURE 11
FIGURE 11

Histology of condyloma acuminatum (hemalun-eosin stain; high-power view). The figure demonstrates many koilocytes in the stratum spinosum. Koilocytes are relatively large cells with a shrunken, irregular nucleus surrounded by a halo. (Courtesy of Clara E. Mesonero, Cape Cod Hospital, Cape Cod, MA.)

Citation: Bonnez W. 2009. Papillomavirus, p 603-644. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch28
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FIGURE 12
Diagrammatic representation of the nomenclature, histologic features, and distribution of associated HPV types in HPV-related cervical lesions. The dysplasia and the CIN classifications are primarily histologic classifications that are also used for cytology, whereas the Bethesda classification is designed mainly for cytology (see text for details). *, This category in the Pap classification also included atypical squamous cells of the Bethesda classification.
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Image of FIGURE 12
FIGURE 12

Diagrammatic representation of the nomenclature, histologic features, and distribution of associated HPV types in HPV-related cervical lesions. The dysplasia and the CIN classifications are primarily histologic classifications that are also used for cytology, whereas the Bethesda classification is designed mainly for cytology (see text for details). *, This category in the Pap classification also included atypical squamous cells of the Bethesda classification.

Citation: Bonnez W. 2009. Papillomavirus, p 603-644. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch28
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FIGURE 13
Immunocytochemistry of condyloma acuminatum with an antibody directed against the common papillomavirus antigen (high-power view). Several intense nuclear signals are visible. (Courtesy of Clara E. Mesonero, Cape Cod Hospital, Cape Cod, MA.)
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Image of FIGURE 13
FIGURE 13

Immunocytochemistry of condyloma acuminatum with an antibody directed against the common papillomavirus antigen (high-power view). Several intense nuclear signals are visible. (Courtesy of Clara E. Mesonero, Cape Cod Hospital, Cape Cod, MA.)

Citation: Bonnez W. 2009. Papillomavirus, p 603-644. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch28
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Tables

Papillomavirus
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Citation: Bonnez W. 2009. Papillomavirus, p 603-644. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch28
/content/10.1128/9781555815981.ch28.ch28tab01
TABLE 1
HPV types and their disease associations
Generic image for table
TABLE 1

HPV types and their disease associations

Citation: Bonnez W. 2009. Papillomavirus, p 603-644. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch28
/content/10.1128/9781555815981.ch28.ch28tab02
TABLE 2
HPV proteins and their possible functions
Generic image for table
TABLE 2

HPV proteins and their possible functions

Citation: Bonnez W. 2009. Papillomavirus, p 603-644. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch28
/content/10.1128/9781555815981.ch28.ch28tab03
TABLE 3
Tissue differentiation and HPV markers of productive infection
Generic image for table
TABLE 3

Tissue differentiation and HPV markers of productive infection

Citation: Bonnez W. 2009. Papillomavirus, p 603-644. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch28
/content/10.1128/9781555815981.ch28.ch28tab04
TABLE 4
Diagnostic methods for anogenital HPV infection
Generic image for table
TABLE 4

Diagnostic methods for anogenital HPV infection

Citation: Bonnez W. 2009. Papillomavirus, p 603-644. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch28
/content/10.1128/9781555815981.ch28.ch28tab05
TABLE 5
Summary of cervical cancer screening guidelines
Generic image for table
TABLE 5

Summary of cervical cancer screening guidelines

Citation: Bonnez W. 2009. Papillomavirus, p 603-644. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch28
/content/10.1128/9781555815981.ch28.ch28tab06
TABLE 6
Some common treatment modalities for cutaneous warts
Generic image for table
TABLE 6

Some common treatment modalities for cutaneous warts

Citation: Bonnez W. 2009. Papillomavirus, p 603-644. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch28
/content/10.1128/9781555815981.ch28.ch28tab07
TABLE 7
Common treatment modalities for anogenital warts
Generic image for table
TABLE 7

Common treatment modalities for anogenital warts

Citation: Bonnez W. 2009. Papillomavirus, p 603-644. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch28
/content/10.1128/9781555815981.ch28.ch28tab08
TABLE 8
Suggested approaches to the treatment of warts
Generic image for table
TABLE 8

Suggested approaches to the treatment of warts

Citation: Bonnez W. 2009. Papillomavirus, p 603-644. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch28

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