1887

Chapter 54 : Alphaviruses

Authors: David W. Smith, John S. Mackenzie, Scott C. Weaver
Content Type: Reference
Publication Year: 2009

Category: Viruses and Viral Pathogenesis

MyBook is a cheap paperback edition of the original book and will be sold at uniform, low price.

Preview this chapter:
Preview Magnify
Zoom in
Zoomout

Alphaviruses, Page 1 of 2

| /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555815981/9781555814250_Chap54-1.gif /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555815981/9781555814250_Chap54-2.gif

Abstract:

The alphaviruses are principally mosquito-borne, positive-strand RNA viruses in the family that exhibit a broad range of pathogenicity in humans and animals. The replication complexes of alphaviruses are associated with cytoplasmic membranes, and the main determinant of membrane attachment seems to be nsP1, which is hydrophobically modified by palmitoylation of cysteine residues. In humans, an age-dependent susceptibility of infants and the elderly to central nervous system (CNS) infection has been observed epidemiologically, although its pathogenesis has not been elucidated. Immature mouse neurons infected with Sindbis Virus (SINV) or Semliki Forest Virus (SFV) die of caspase-dependent apoptosis, while mature neurons survive by producing factors inhibiting virus-induced apoptosis. Apoptosis is induced at the time of alphavirus fusion with the cell membrane, and virus replication is not required. Mayaro virus (MAYV) is the principal New World representative of alphaviruses within the SFV complex. The epidemiological pattern is explained by the forest cycle of viral transmission, probably between mosquitoes and wild vertebrates, including monkeys and marmosets, analogous to the sylvatic cycle of yellow fever. The majority of infections with the arthritogenic alphaviruses are benign but temporarily debilitating. Barmah Forest virus (BFV), named after the site in northern Victoria where it was first isolated from mosquitoes, is antigenically distinct from other alphaviruses, including River virus (RRV) and SINV, that are also found in Australia. Alphaviruses principally are maintained in zoonotic transmission cycles in natural habitats.

Citation: Smith D, Mackenzie J, Weaver S. 2009. Alphaviruses, p 1241-1274. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch54
Highlighted Text: Show | Hide
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

Figures

Alphaviruses
[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54-1,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54-1,properties={foaf_givenname=David W., foaf_name=David W. Smith, foaf_surname=Smith}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54-2,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54-2,properties={foaf_givenname=John S., foaf_name=John S. Mackenzie, foaf_surname=Mackenzie}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54-3,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54-3,properties={foaf_givenname=Scott C., foaf_name=Scott C. Weaver, foaf_surname=Weaver}]]
Citation: Smith D, Mackenzie J, Weaver S. 2009. Alphaviruses, p 1241-1274. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch54
/content/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54.ch54fig01
FIGURE 1
Genetic relationship of alphavirus species and some major subtypes (shown in parentheses) based on partial sequences of E1 glycoprotein gene. The main antigenic complexes are indicated on the right. The dotted line represents the recombination event between SINV and EEEV. Numbers on the lines indicate bootstrap values for clades to the right using the neighbor-joining (numbers above branches) or Bayesian (numbers below line) method. (Reprinted from reference with permission.)
10.1128/9781555815981/f1244-01_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815981/f1244-01.gif
Image of FIGURE 1
FIGURE 1

Genetic relationship of alphavirus species and some major subtypes (shown in parentheses) based on partial sequences of E1 glycoprotein gene. The main antigenic complexes are indicated on the right. The dotted line represents the recombination event between SINV and EEEV. Numbers on the lines indicate bootstrap values for clades to the right using the neighbor-joining (numbers above branches) or Bayesian (numbers below line) method. (Reprinted from reference with permission.)

Citation: Smith D, Mackenzie J, Weaver S. 2009. Alphaviruses, p 1241-1274. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch54
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54.ch54fig02
FIGURE 2
RRV. (Left) Cryoelectron microscopic image reconstruction of RRV showing the flower-like envelope protein spikes, virion membrane, and nucleocapsid core. (Right) Relationships of spike and capsid proteins and virion RNA. (Courtesy of R. J. Kuhn.)
10.1128/9781555815981/f1245-01_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815981/f1245-01.gif
Image of FIGURE 2
FIGURE 2

RRV. (Left) Cryoelectron microscopic image reconstruction of RRV showing the flower-like envelope protein spikes, virion membrane, and nucleocapsid core. (Right) Relationships of spike and capsid proteins and virion RNA. (Courtesy of R. J. Kuhn.)

Citation: Smith D, Mackenzie J, Weaver S. 2009. Alphaviruses, p 1241-1274. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch54
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54.ch54fig03
FIGURE 3
Schematic diagram of alphavirus genome [positive (⊕) sense RNA with poly(A) (A) tail and 5′ terminal cap (CAP); viral complementary RNA (vcRNA) of negative (⊖) sense; and subgenomic mRNA of positive sense]. Viral nonstructural proteins are translated from the 5′ two-thirds region of the genome, yielding polyprotein intermediates and nonstructural proteins nsP1 to nsP4. RNA is replicated into negative-sense RNA templates and transcribed into 26S subgenomic RNA. Cotranslational processing of the subgenomic mRNA yields the three principal structural proteins: capsid and envelope glycoproteins (E1 and E2). ORF, open reading frame; nt, nucleotide.
10.1128/9781555815981/f1246-01_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815981/f1246-01.gif
Image of FIGURE 3
FIGURE 3

Schematic diagram of alphavirus genome [positive (⊕) sense RNA with poly(A) (A) tail and 5′ terminal cap (CAP); viral complementary RNA (vcRNA) of negative (⊖) sense; and subgenomic mRNA of positive sense]. Viral nonstructural proteins are translated from the 5′ two-thirds region of the genome, yielding polyprotein intermediates and nonstructural proteins nsP1 to nsP4. RNA is replicated into negative-sense RNA templates and transcribed into 26S subgenomic RNA. Cotranslational processing of the subgenomic mRNA yields the three principal structural proteins: capsid and envelope glycoproteins (E1 and E2). ORF, open reading frame; nt, nucleotide.

Citation: Smith D, Mackenzie J, Weaver S. 2009. Alphaviruses, p 1241-1274. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch54
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54.ch54fig04
FIGURE 4
After binding to the cell membrane (step 1), virions are taken up in endocytic vesicles (steps 2 and 3). The virion and vesicular membranes fuse, releasing the nucleocapsid (step 4). The viral nucleocapsid binds to a ribosome (step 5) and is uncoated, freeing viral RNA (step 6) from the individual capsid (gray dots). Positive-sense viral RNA (heavy line) is replicated (step 7), producing complementary negative-sense RNA (gray line) (step 8), which in turn is transcribed to full-length genomic positive-sense RNA (step 9) or subgenomic RNA (step 10). Nonstructural proteins (nsp) are translated from genomic RNA. Subgenomic RNA is translated to produce capsid proteins (black dots) and envelope proteins, which are modified before insertion into the cell membrane (gray bars) (step 11). Genomic RNA is packaged with capsid proteins into nucleocapsid cores (step 12); capsid and E2 proteins associate (step 13) prior to viral budding (step 14).
10.1128/9781555815981/f1247-01_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815981/f1247-01.gif
Image of FIGURE 4
FIGURE 4

After binding to the cell membrane (step 1), virions are taken up in endocytic vesicles (steps 2 and 3). The virion and vesicular membranes fuse, releasing the nucleocapsid (step 4). The viral nucleocapsid binds to a ribosome (step 5) and is uncoated, freeing viral RNA (step 6) from the individual capsid (gray dots). Positive-sense viral RNA (heavy line) is replicated (step 7), producing complementary negative-sense RNA (gray line) (step 8), which in turn is transcribed to full-length genomic positive-sense RNA (step 9) or subgenomic RNA (step 10). Nonstructural proteins (nsp) are translated from genomic RNA. Subgenomic RNA is translated to produce capsid proteins (black dots) and envelope proteins, which are modified before insertion into the cell membrane (gray bars) (step 11). Genomic RNA is packaged with capsid proteins into nucleocapsid cores (step 12); capsid and E2 proteins associate (step 13) prior to viral budding (step 14).

Citation: Smith D, Mackenzie J, Weaver S. 2009. Alphaviruses, p 1241-1274. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch54
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54.ch54fig05
FIGURE 5
Reported cases of EEE among humans in the United States, 1964 to 2006. The reported incidence is highest in Florida, where equine cases are reported perennially from the northeastern coast and throughout the peninsula. Relatively constant inland foci of transmission have been identified in upstate New York, southwestern Michigan, northeastern Indiana, and southcentral Georgia. In Massachusetts, human cases have been reported almost entirely from the eastern counties and in New Jersey from the southern counties. (Reprinted from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/arbor/arbocase.htm.)
10.1128/9781555815981/f1250-01_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815981/f1250-01.gif
Image of FIGURE 5
FIGURE 5

Reported cases of EEE among humans in the United States, 1964 to 2006. The reported incidence is highest in Florida, where equine cases are reported perennially from the northeastern coast and throughout the peninsula. Relatively constant inland foci of transmission have been identified in upstate New York, southwestern Michigan, northeastern Indiana, and southcentral Georgia. In Massachusetts, human cases have been reported almost entirely from the eastern counties and in New Jersey from the southern counties. (Reprinted from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/arbor/arbocase.htm.)

Citation: Smith D, Mackenzie J, Weaver S. 2009. Alphaviruses, p 1241-1274. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch54
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54.ch54fig06
FIGURE 6
Reported cases of EEE (broken line) and WEE (solid line), United States, 1964 to 2006. (Reprinted from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/arbor/arbocase.htm.)
10.1128/9781555815981/f1250-02_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815981/f1250-02.gif
Image of FIGURE 6
FIGURE 6

Reported cases of EEE (broken line) and WEE (solid line), United States, 1964 to 2006. (Reprinted from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/arbor/arbocase.htm.)

Citation: Smith D, Mackenzie J, Weaver S. 2009. Alphaviruses, p 1241-1274. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch54
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54.ch54fig07
FIGURE 7
Schematic diagram of the EEE transmission cycle; solid lines show known portions, and broken lines show speculative portions. The principal enzootic mosquito vector, transmits the virus among birds and occasionally initiates an outbreak among pheasants or other captive birds. Various other species bridge the enzootic cycle to infect humans and horses, which are dead-end hosts; the principal species include found in salt marsh coastal habitat; associated with open meadows and flooded ground pools; associated with woodland pools; and found in open freshwater swamps with emerging vegetation. The viral overwintering mechanism is unknown but potentially includes vertically infected mosquitoes, persistently infected birds, and other vertebrates.
10.1128/9781555815981/f1251-01_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815981/f1251-01.gif
Image of FIGURE 7
FIGURE 7

Schematic diagram of the EEE transmission cycle; solid lines show known portions, and broken lines show speculative portions. The principal enzootic mosquito vector, transmits the virus among birds and occasionally initiates an outbreak among pheasants or other captive birds. Various other species bridge the enzootic cycle to infect humans and horses, which are dead-end hosts; the principal species include found in salt marsh coastal habitat; associated with open meadows and flooded ground pools; associated with woodland pools; and found in open freshwater swamps with emerging vegetation. The viral overwintering mechanism is unknown but potentially includes vertically infected mosquitoes, persistently infected birds, and other vertebrates.

Citation: Smith D, Mackenzie J, Weaver S. 2009. Alphaviruses, p 1241-1274. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch54
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54.ch54fig08
FIGURE 8
Reported cases of EEE and WEE by month, United States, 1972 to 1989. (Data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/arbor/arbocase.htm.)
10.1128/9781555815981/f1252-01_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815981/f1252-01.gif
Image of FIGURE 8
FIGURE 8

Reported cases of EEE and WEE by month, United States, 1972 to 1989. (Data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/arbor/arbocase.htm.)

Citation: Smith D, Mackenzie J, Weaver S. 2009. Alphaviruses, p 1241-1274. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch54
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54.ch54fig09
FIGURE 9
Reported cases of WEE among humans in the United States, 1964 to 2006. (Reprinted from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/arbor/arbocase.htm.)
10.1128/9781555815981/f1254-01_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815981/f1254-01.gif
Image of FIGURE 9
FIGURE 9

Reported cases of WEE among humans in the United States, 1964 to 2006. (Reprinted from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/arbor/arbocase.htm.)

Citation: Smith D, Mackenzie J, Weaver S. 2009. Alphaviruses, p 1241-1274. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch54
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54.ch54fig10
FIGURE 10
Geographic distribution of VEE epizootics and sylvatic viral subtypes.
10.1128/9781555815981/f1257-01_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815981/f1257-01.gif
Image of FIGURE 10
FIGURE 10

Geographic distribution of VEE epizootics and sylvatic viral subtypes.

Citation: Smith D, Mackenzie J, Weaver S. 2009. Alphaviruses, p 1241-1274. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch54
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54.ch54fig11
FIGURE 11
(A) Sylvatic VEEVs circulate continuously in silent tropical and subtropical foci among mosquitoes and small mammals or aquatic birds. Humans (e.g., soldiers on jungle bivouacs) are infected when they chance upon transmission foci. Bridging vectors (e.g., ) that feed on viremic vertebrates in a sylvatic focus can carry the virus to nearby areas of human activity. (B) In contrast to the continuous cycling of sylvatic VEEV subtypes, until recently, epizootic VEEV had never been isolated except during periodic outbreaks. Once introduced, epizootic viruses are rapidly amplified among equines (horses and burros). Equines develop high viremia levels, so various mosquito species can function as biological vectors (only some important species are shown) and other biting insects, such as blackflies, can spread the virus mechanically. Humans develop illness with high viremia levels but probably have an insignificant role, if any, in viral amplification. Transmission declines as susceptible equines are exhausted by natural infection or immunization. It is speculated that epizootic IC viruses arise by mutation from sylvatic ID viruses; the subpopulation circulates in a sylvatic cycle and under appropriate conditions is amplified, leading to epizootic and epidemic spread.
10.1128/9781555815981/f1258-01_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815981/f1258-01.gif
Image of FIGURE 11
FIGURE 11

(A) Sylvatic VEEVs circulate continuously in silent tropical and subtropical foci among mosquitoes and small mammals or aquatic birds. Humans (e.g., soldiers on jungle bivouacs) are infected when they chance upon transmission foci. Bridging vectors (e.g., ) that feed on viremic vertebrates in a sylvatic focus can carry the virus to nearby areas of human activity. (B) In contrast to the continuous cycling of sylvatic VEEV subtypes, until recently, epizootic VEEV had never been isolated except during periodic outbreaks. Once introduced, epizootic viruses are rapidly amplified among equines (horses and burros). Equines develop high viremia levels, so various mosquito species can function as biological vectors (only some important species are shown) and other biting insects, such as blackflies, can spread the virus mechanically. Humans develop illness with high viremia levels but probably have an insignificant role, if any, in viral amplification. Transmission declines as susceptible equines are exhausted by natural infection or immunization. It is speculated that epizootic IC viruses arise by mutation from sylvatic ID viruses; the subpopulation circulates in a sylvatic cycle and under appropriate conditions is amplified, leading to epizootic and epidemic spread.

Citation: Smith D, Mackenzie J, Weaver S. 2009. Alphaviruses, p 1241-1274. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch54
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54.ch54fig12
FIGURE 12
Reported chikungunya epidemics by year.
10.1128/9781555815981/f1261-01_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815981/f1261-01.gif
Image of FIGURE 12
FIGURE 12

Reported chikungunya epidemics by year.

Citation: Smith D, Mackenzie J, Weaver S. 2009. Alphaviruses, p 1241-1274. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch54
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54.ch54fig13
FIGURE 13
Small papular lesions seen in Sindbis (Ockelbo) fever. (Courtesy of B. Niklasson.)
10.1128/9781555815981/f1264-01_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815981/f1264-01.gif
Image of FIGURE 13
FIGURE 13

Small papular lesions seen in Sindbis (Ockelbo) fever. (Courtesy of B. Niklasson.)

Citation: Smith D, Mackenzie J, Weaver S. 2009. Alphaviruses, p 1241-1274. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch54
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54.ch54fig14
FIGURE 14
Notifications and notification rates of RRV infections, Australia, 2005–2006, by Statistical Division of residence. (Reprinted from reference with permission.)
10.1128/9781555815981/f1266-01_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815981/f1266-01.gif
Image of FIGURE 14
FIGURE 14

Notifications and notification rates of RRV infections, Australia, 2005–2006, by Statistical Division of residence. (Reprinted from reference with permission.)

Citation: Smith D, Mackenzie J, Weaver S. 2009. Alphaviruses, p 1241-1274. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch54
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54.ch54fig15
FIGURE 15
Crude annual rate of BFV and RRV infection notifications, Australia, 1 July 1991 to 30 June 2006, by season of onset. (Reprinted from reference with permission.)
10.1128/9781555815981/f1267-01_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555815981/f1267-01.gif
Image of FIGURE 15
FIGURE 15

Crude annual rate of BFV and RRV infection notifications, Australia, 1 July 1991 to 30 June 2006, by season of onset. (Reprinted from reference with permission.)

Citation: Smith D, Mackenzie J, Weaver S. 2009. Alphaviruses, p 1241-1274. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch54
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint

References

/content/book/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54
1. Aguilar, P. V.,, S. Paessler,, A. S. Carrara,, S. Baron,, J. Poast,, E. Wang,, A. C. Moncayo,, M. Anishchenko,, D. Watts,, R. B. Tesh, and, S. C. Weaver. 2005. Variation in interferon sensitivity and induction among strains of eastern equine encephalitis virus. J. Virol. 79: 11300– 11310.
2. Aguilar, P. V.,, R. M. Robich,, M. J. Turell,, M. L. O’Guinn,, T. A. Klein,, A. Huaman,, C. Guevara,, Z. Rios,, R. B. Tesh,, D. M. Watts,, J. Olson, and, S. C. Weaver. 2007. Endemic eastern equine encephalitis in the Amazon region of Peru. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 76: 293– 298.
3. Anderson, B. A. 1984. Focal neurologic signs in western equine encephalitis. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 130: 1019– 1021.
4. Anderson, C. R.,, W. G. Downs,, G. H. Wattley,, N. W. Ahin, and, A. A. Reese. 1957. Mayaro virus: a new human disease agent. II. Isolation from blood of patients in Trinidad, B.W.I. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 6: 1012– 1016.
5. Bastian, F. O.,, R. D. Wende,, D. B. Singer, and, R. S. Zeller. 1975. Eastern equine encephalomyelitis. Histopathologic and ultrastructural changes with isolation of the virus in a human case. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 64: 10– 13.
6. Bessaud, M.,, C. N. Peyrefitte,, B. A. Pastorino,, P. Gravier,, F. Tock,, F. Boete,, H. J. Tolou, and, M. Grandadam. 2006. O’nyong-nyong virus, Chad. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 12: 1248– 1250.
7. Bia, F. J.,, G. F. Thornton,, A. J. Main,, C. K. Fong, and, G. D. Hsiung. 1980. Western equine encephalitis mimicking herpes simplex encephalitis. JAMA 244: 367– 369.
8. Bianchi, T. I.,, G. Aviles,, T. P. Monath, and, M. S. Sabattini. 1993. Western equine encephalomyelitis: virulence markers and their epidemiological significance. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 49: 322– 328.
9. Bigler, W. J.,, E. B. Lassing,, E. E. Buff,, E. C. Prather,, E. C. Beck, and, G. L. Hoff. 1976. Endemic eastern equine encephalomyelitis in Florida: a twenty-year analysis, 1955–1974. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 25: 884– 890.
10. Blackburn, N. K.,, T. G. Besselaar, and, G. Gibson. 1995. Antigenic relationship between chikungunya virus strains and o’nyong nyong virus using monoclonal antibodies. Res. Virol. 146: 69– 73.
11. Bowen, G. S.,, and C. H. Calisher. 1976. Virological and serological studies of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis in humans. J. Clin. Microbiol. 4: 22– 27.
12. Bowen, G. S.,, T. R. Fashinell,, P. B. Dean, and, M. B. Gregg. 1976. Clinical aspects of human Venezuelan equine encephalitis in Texas. Bull. Pan. Am. Health Organ. 10: 46– 57.
13. Brault, A. C.,, A. M. Powers,, C. L. Chavez,, R. N. Lopez,, M. F. Cachon,, L. F. Gutierrez,, W. Kang,, R. B. Tesh,, R. E. Shope, and, S. C. Weaver. 1999. Genetic and antigenic diversity among eastern equine encephalitis viruses from North, Central and South America. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 61: 579– 586.
14. Briceno Rossi, A. L. 1967. Rural epidemic encephalitis in Venezuela caused by a group A arbovirus (VEE). Prog. Med. Virol. 9: 176– 203.
15. Brighton, S. W. 1984. Chloroquine phosphate treatment of chronic chikungunya arthritis. An open pilot study. S. Afr. Med. J. 66: 217– 218.
16. Brighton, S. W.,, O. W. Prozesky, and, A. L. de la Harpe. 1983. Chikungunya virus infection. A retrospective study of 107 cases. S. Afr. Med. J. 63: 313– 315.
17. Calisher, C. H. 1994. Medically important arboviruses of the United Sates and Canada. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 7: 89– 116.
18. Carey, D. E.,, R. M. Myers,, C. M. DeRanitz,, M. Jadhav, and, R. Reuben. 1969. The 1964 chikungunya epidemic at Vellore, South India, including observations on concurrent dengue. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 63: 434– 445.
19. Causey, O. R.,, and O. M. Maroja. 1957. Mayaro virus: a new human disease agent. III. Investigation of an epidemic of acute febrile illness on the River Guana in Para, Brazil and isolation of Mayaro virus as causative agent. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 6: 1017– 1023.
20. Centers for Disease Control. 1988. Arboviral infections of the central nervous system—United States, 1987. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 37: 506– 515.
21. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2006. Eastern equine encephalitis—New Hampshire and Massachusetts, August–September 2005. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 55: 697– 700.
22. Chatterjee, S. N.,, S. K. Chakravarti,, A. C. Mitra, and, J. K. Sarkar. 1965. Virological investigation of cases with neurological complications during the outbreak of haemorrhagic fever in Calcutta. J. Indian Med. Assoc. 45: 314– 316.
23. Clarke, D. H. 1961. Two nonfatal human infections with the virus of eastern equine encephalitis. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 10: 67– 70.
24. Clarris, B. J.,, R. L. Doherty,, J. R. Fraser,, E. L. French, and, K. D. Muirden. 1975. Epidemic polyarthritis: a cytological, virological and immunochemical study. Aust. N. Z. J. Med. 5: 450– 457.
25. Copps, S. C.,, and L. E. Giddings. 1959. Transplacental transmission of western equine encephalitis. Pediatrics 24: 31– 33.
26. Davis, J. H. 1940. Equine encephalomyelitis (western type) in children: report of cases with residual atrophy of the brain. J. Pediatr. 16: 591– 595.
27. de la Monte, S.,, F. Castro,, N. J. Bonilla,, A. Gaskin de Urdaneta, and, G. M. Hutchins. 1985. The systemic pathology of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus infection in humans. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 34: 194– 202.
28. Deller, J. J.,, and P. K. Russell. 1968. Chikungunya disease. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 17: 107– 111.
29. Deresiewicz, R. L.,, S. J. Thaler,, L. Hsu, and, A. A. Zamari. 1997. Clinical and neuroradiographic manifestations of eastern equine encephalitis. N. Engl. J. Med. 336: 1867– 1874.
30. Dickerman, R. W.,, F. P. Pinheiro,, O. F. Oliva,, J. F. Travassos da Rosa, and, C. H. Calisher. 1980. Eastern encephalitis virus from virgin forests of Northern Brazil. Bull. Pan. Am. Health Organ. 14: 15– 21.
31. Dietz, W. H.,, Jr., P. H. Peralta, and, K. M. Johnson. 1979. Ten clinical cases of human infection with Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus, subtype I-D. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 28: 329– 334.
32. Dietz, W. H.,, Jr., O. Alvarez, Jr.,, D. H. Martin,, T. E. Walton,, L. J. Ackerman, and, K. M. Johnson. 1978. Enzootic and epizootic Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus in horses infected by peripheral and intrathecal routes. J. Infect. Dis. 137: 227– 237.
33. Doggett, S. L.,, R. C. Russell,, J. Clancy,, J. Haniotis, and, M. J. Cloonan. 1999. Barmah Forest virus epidemic on the south coast of New South Wales, Australia, 1994–5: viruses, vectors, human cases and environmental factors. J. Med. Entomol. 36: 861– 868.
34. Ecklund, C. M. 1946. Human encephalitis of the western equine encephalitis type in Minnesota in 1941: clinical and epidemiological study of serologically positive cases. Am. J. Hyg. 43: 171– 193.
35. Eisenhut, M.,, T. F. Schwarz, and, B. Hegenscheid. 1999. Seroprevalence of dengue, chikungunya and Sindbis virus infections in German aid workers. Infection 27: 82– 85.
36. Engler, R. J.,, J. A. Mangiafico,, P. Jahrling,, T. G. Ksiazek,, M. Pedrotti-Krueger, and, C. J. Peters. 1992. Venezuelan equine encephalitis-specific immunoglobulin responses: live attenuated TC-83 versus inactivated C-84 vaccine. J. Med. Virol. 38: 305– 310.
37. Espmark, A.,, and B. Niklasson. 1984. Ockelbo disease in Sweden: epidemiological, clinical, and virological data from the 1982 outbreak. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 33: 1203– 1211.
38. Flexman, J. P.,, D. W. Smith,, J. S. Mackenzie,, J. R. Fraser,, S. P. Bass,, L. Hueston,, M. D. Lindsay, and, A. L. Cunningham. 1998. A comparison of the diseases caused by Ross River virus and Barmah Forest virus. Med. J. Aust. 169: 159– 163.
39. Fothergill, L. D.,, M. Holden, and, R. W. G. Wyckoff. 1939. Western equine encephalomyelitis in a laboratory worker. JAMA 113: 206– 207.
40. Fourie, E. D.,, and J. G. Morrison. 1979. Rheumatoid arthritic syndrome after chikungunya fever. S. Afr. Med. J. 56: 130– 132.
41. Fradin, M. S. 1998. Mosquitoes and mosquito repellents: a clinician’s guide. Ann. Intern. Med. 128: 931– 940.
42. Fraser, J. R. 1986. Epidemic polyarthritis and Ross River virus disease. Clin. Rheum. Dis. 12: 369– 388.
43. Fraser, J. R.,, V. M. Ratnamohan,, J. P. Dowling,, G. J. Becker, and, G. A. Varigos. 1983. The exanthem of Ross River virus infection. Histology, location of virus antigen and nature of inflammatory infiltrate. J. Clin. Pathol. 36: 1256– 1263.
44. Garen, P. D.,, T. F. Tsai, and, J. M. Powers. 1999. Human eastern equine encephalitis: immunohistochemistry and ultrastructure. Mod. Pathol. 12: 646– 652.
45. Getting, V. A. 1941. Equine encephalomyelitis in Massachusetts. N. Engl. J. Med. 224: 999– 1006.
46. Gold, H.,, and B. Hampil. 1942. Equine encephalomyelitis in a laboratory technician with recovery. Ann. Intern. Med. 16: 556– 559.
47. Goldfield, M.,, J. N. Welsh, and, B. F. Taylor. 1968. The 1959 outbreak of Eastern encephalitis in New Jersey. 5. The inapparent infection:disease ratio. Am. J. Epidemiol. 87: 32– 33.
48. Grady, G. F.,, H. K. Maxfield,, S. W. Hildreth,, R. J. Timperi, Jr.,, R. F. Gilfillan,, B. J. Rosenau,, D. B. Francy,, C. H. Calisher,, L. C. Marcus, and, M. A. Madoff. 1978. Eastern equine encephalitis in Massachusetts, 1957–1976. A prospective study centered upon analyses of mosquitoes. Am. J. Epidemiol. 107: 170– 178.
49. Griffin, D. E. 2007. Alphaviruses, p. 1023–1067. In D. M. Knipe,, P. M. Howley,, D. E. Griffin,, R. A. Lamb,, M. A. Martin,, B. Roizman, and, S. E. Straus (ed.), Fields Virology, 5th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA.
50. Griffin, D. E.,, B. Levine,, S. Ubol, and, J. M. Hardwick. 1994. The effects of alphavirus infection on neurons. Ann. Neurol. 35: S23– S27.
51. Griffin, D.,, B. Levine,, W. Tyor,, S. Ubol, and, P. Desprès. 1997. The role of antibody in recovery from alphavirus encephalitis. Immunol. Rev. 159: 155– 161.
52. Griffin, D. E.,, and J. M. Hardwick. 1997. Regulators of apoptosis on the road to persistent alphavirus infection. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 51: 565– 592.
53. Gutierrez, V. E.,, T. P. Monath,, A. A. Alava,, B. D. Uriguen,, R. M. Arzube, and, R. W. Chamberlain. 1975. Epidemiologic investigations of the 1969 epidemic of Venezuelan encephalitis in Ecuador. Am. J. Epidemiol. 102: 400– 413.
54. Ha, D. Q.,, C. H. Calisher,, P. H. Tien,, N. Karabatsos, and, D. J. Gubler. 1995. Isolation of a newly recognized alphavirus from mosquitoes in Vietnam and evidence for human infection and disease. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 53: 100– 104.
55. Halstead, S. B.,, J. E. Scanlon,, P. Umpaivit, and, S. Udomsakdi. 1969. Dengue and chikungunya virus infection in man in Thailand, 1962–1964. IV. Epidemiologic studies in the Bangkok metropolitan area. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 18: 997– 1021.
56. Harley, D.,, A. Sleigh, and, S. Ritchie. 2001. Ross River virus transmission, infection and disease: a cross-disciplinary review. Rev. Clin. Microbiol. 14: 909– 932.
57. Hart, K. L.,, D. Keen, and, E. A. Belle. 1964. An outbreak of eastern equine encephalomyelitis in Jamaica, West Indies. I. Description of human cases. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 13: 331– 334.
58. Heise, M. T.,, D. A. Simpson, and, R. E. Johnston. 2000. Sindbis-group alphavirus replication in periosteum and endosteum of long bones in adult mice. J. Virol. 74: 9294– 9299.
59. Hommel, D.,, J. M. Heraud,, A. Hulin, and, A. Talarmin. 2000. Association of Tonate virus (subtype IIIB of the Venezuelan equine encephalitis complex) with encephalitis in a human. Clin. Infect. Dis. 30: 188– 190.
60. Hörling, J.,, S. Vene,, C. Franzén, and, B. Niklasson. 1993. Detection of Ockelbo virus RNA in skin biopsies by polymerase chain reaction. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31: 2004– 2009.
61. Jadhav, M.,, M. Namboodripad,, R. H. Carman,, D. E. Carey, and, R. M. Myers. 1965. Chikungunya disease in infants and children in Vellore: a report of clinical and haematological features of virologically proved cases. Indian J. Med. Res. 53: 764– 776.
62. Jonkers, A. H.,, L. Spence, and, J. Karbaat. 1968. Arbovirus infections in Dutch military personnel stationed in Surinam. Further studies. Trop. Geogr. Med. 20: 251– 256.
63. Jordan, R. A.,, J. A. Wagner, and, F. R. McCrumb. 1965. Eastern equine encephalitis: report of a case with autopsy. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 14: 470– 474.
64. Julkunen, I.,, M. Brummer-Korvenkontio,, A. Hautanen,, P. Kuusisto,, P. Lindstrom,, O. Wager, and, K. Penttinen. 1986. Elevated serum immune complex levels in Pogosta disease, an acute alphavirus infection with rash and arthritis. J. Clin. Lab. Immunol. 21: 77– 82.
65. Jupp, P. G.,, N. K. Blackburn,, D. L. Thompson, and, G. M. Meenehan. 1986. Sindbis and West Nile virus infections in the Witwatersrand-Pretoria region. S. Afr. Med. J. 70: 218– 220.
66. Kennedy, A. C.,, J. Fleming, and, L. Solomon. 1980. Chikungunya viral arthropathy: a clinical description. J. Rheumatol. 7: 231– 236.
67. Kiwanuka, N.,, E. J. Sanders,, E. B. Rwaguma,, J. Kawamata,, F. P. Ssengooba,, R. Najjemba,, W. A. Were,, M. Lamunu,, G. Bagambisa,, T. R. Burkot,, L. Dunster,, J. J. Lutwama,, D. A. Martin,, C. B. Cropp,, N. Karabatsos,, R. S. Lanciotti,, T. F. Tsai, and, G. L. Campbell. 1999. O’nyong-nyong fever in south-central Uganda, 1996–1997: clinical features and validation of a clinical case definition for surveillance purposes. Clin. Infect. Dis. 29: 1243– 1250.
68. Kokernot, R. H.,, H. R. Shinefield, and, W. A. Long-shore, Jr. 1953. The 1952 outbreak of encephalitis in California. Differential diagnosis. Calif. Med. 79: 73– 77.
69. Komar, N.,, and A. Spielman. 1994. Emergence of eastern encephalitis in Massachusetts. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 740: 157– 168.
70. Koprowski, H.,, and H. R. Cox. 1947. Human laboratory infection with Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus. N. Engl. J. Med. 236: 647– 654.
71. Kurkela, S.,, T. Manni,, J. Myllynen,, A. Vaheri, and, O. Vapalahti. 2005. Clinical and laboratory manifestations of Sindbis virus infection: prospective study, Finland, 2002–2003. J. Infect. Dis. 191: 1820– 1829.
72. Lambert, A. J.,, D. A. Martin, and, R. S. Lanciotti. 2003. Detection of North American eastern and western equine encephalitis viruses by nucleic acid amplification assays. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41: 379– 385.
73. Lanciotti, R. S.,, M. L. Ludwig,, E. B. Rwaguma,, J. J. Lutwama,, T. M. Cram,, N. Karabatsos,, B. C. Cropp, and, B. R. Miller. 1998. Emergence of epidemic O’nyongnyong fever in Uganda after a 35 year absence: genetic characterization of the virus. Virology 252: 258– 268.
74. Larke, R. P.,, and E. F. Wheelock. 1970. Stabilization of chikungunya virus infectivity by human blood platelets. J. Infect. Dis. 122: 523– 531.
75. Leech, R. W.,, J. C. Harris, and, R. M. Johnson. 1981. 1975 encephalitis epidemic in North Dakota and western Minnesota. An epidemiologic, clinical, and neuropathologic study. Minn. Med. 64: 545– 548.
76. Leon, C. A. 1975. Sequelae of Venezuelan equine encephalitis in humans: a four year follow-up. Int. J. Epidemiol. 4: 131– 140.
77. Letson, G. W.,, R. E. Bailey,, J. Pearson, and, T. F. Tsai. 1993. Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE): a description of the 1989 outbreak, recent epidemiologic trends, and the association of rainfall with EEE occurrence. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 49: 677– 685.
78. Lidbury, B. A.,, C. Simeonovic,, G. E. Maxwell,, I. D. Marshall, and, A. J. Hapel. 2000. Macrophage-induced muscle pathology results in morbidity and mortality for Ross River virus-infected mice. J. Infect. Dis. 181: 27– 34.
79. Lindsay, M. D.,, C. A. Johansen,, D. W. Smith,, M. J. Wallace, and, J. S. Mackenzie. 1995. An outbreak of Barmah Forest virus disease in the south-west of Western Australia. Med. J. Aust. 162: 291– 294.
80. Linssen, B.,, R. M. Kinney,, P. Aguilar,, K. L. Russell,, D. M. Watts,, O. R. Kaaden, and, M. Pfeffer. 2000. Development of reverse transcription-PCR assays specific for detection of equine encephalitis viruses. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38: 1527– 1535.
81. Liu, C.,, C. Johansen,, N. Kurucz, and, P. Whelan. 2006. Communicable Diseases Network Australia National Arbovirus and Malaria Advisory Committee annual report, 2005–06. Commun. Dis. Intell. 30: 411– 429.
82. Lumsden, W. H. R. 1955. An epidemic of virus disease in Southern Province, Tanganyika Territory, in 1952–53. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 49: 33– 57.
83. Lundström, J. O.,, S. Vene,, A. Espmark,, M. Engvall, and, B. Niklasson. 1991. Geographical and temporal distribution of Ockelbo disease in Sweden. Epidemiol. Infect. 106: 567– 574.
84. Mackenzie, J. S.,, M. D. Lindsay,, R. J. Coelen,, A. K. Broom,, R. A. Hall, and, D. W. Smith. 1994. Arboviruses causing human disease in the Australasian zoogeographic region. Arch. Virol. 136: 447– 467.
85. Mangi, R. J. 1994. Viral arthritis—the great masquerader. Bull. Rheum. Dis. 43: 5– 6.
86. Martin, D. A.,, D. A. Muth,, T. Brown,, A. J. Johnson,, N. Karabatsos, and, J. T. Roehrig. 2000. Standardization of immunoglobulin M capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for routine diagnosis of arboviral infections. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38: 1823– 1826.
87. Mathiot, C. C.,, G. Grimaud,, P. Garry,, J. C. Bouquety,, A. Mada,, A. M. Daguisy, and, A. J. Georges. 1990. An outbreak of human Semliki Forest virus infections in Central African Republic. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 42: 386– 393.
88. McClain, D. J.,, P. R. Pittman,, H. H. Ramsburg,, G. O. Nelson,, C. A. Rossi,, J. A. Mangiafico,, A. L. Schmaljohn, and, F. J. Malinoski. 1998. Immunologic interference from sequential administration of live attenuated alphavirus vaccines. J. Infect. Dis. 177: 634– 641.
89. McIntosh, B. M.,, G. M. McGillivray,, D. B. Dickinson, and, H. Malherbe. 1964. Illness caused by Sindbis and West Nile viruses in South Africa. S. Afr. Med. J. 38: 291– 294.
90. Medovy, H. 1976. The history of western encephalomyelitis in Manitoba. Can. J. Public Health 67 (Suppl. 1) : S13– S14.
91. Meehan, P. J.,, D. L. Wells,, W. Paul,, E. Buff,, A. Lewis,, D. Muth,, R. Hopkins,, N. Karabatsos, and, T. F. Tsai. 2000. Epidemiological features of and public health response to a St. Louis encephalitis epidemic in Florida, 1990–1. Epidemiol. Infect. 125: 181– 188.
92. Molina, O. M.,, M. C. Morales,, I. D. Soto,, J. A. Pena,, R. S. Haack,, D. P. Cardozo, and, J. J. Cardozo. 1999. Venezuelan equine encephalitis. 1995 outbreak: clinical profile of the case with neurologic involvement. Rev. Neurol. 29: 296– 298.
93. Monath, T. P.,, C. H. Calisher,, M. Davis,, G. S. Bowen, and, J. White. 1974. Experimental studies of rhesus monkeys infected with epizootic and enzootic subtypes of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. J. Infect. Dis. 129: 194– 200.
94. Moore, D. L.,, S. Reddy,, F. M. Akinkugbe,, V. H. Lee,, T. S. David-West,, O. R. Causey, and, D. E. Carey. 1974. An epidemic of chikungunya fever at Ibadan, Nigeria, 1969. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 68: 59– 68.
95. Morse, R. P.,, M. L. Bennish, and, B. T. Darras. 1992. Eastern equine encephalitis presenting with a focal brain lesion. Pediatr. Neurol. 8: 473– 475.
96. Mulder, D. W.,, M. Parrott, and, M. Thaler. 1951. Sequelae of western equine encephalitis. Neurology 1: 318– 327.
97. Niklasson, B. A.,, A. Espmark, and, J. Lundström. 1988. Occurrence of arthralgia and specific IgM antibodies three to four years after Ockelbo disease. J. Infect. Dis. 157: 832– 835.
98. Nimmannitya, S.,, S. B. Halstead,, S. N. Cohen, and, M. R. Margiotta. 1969. Dengue and chikungunya virus infection in man in Thailand, 1962–1964. I. Observations on hospitalized patients with hemorrhagic fever. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 18: 954– 971.
99. Noran, H. H.,, and A. B. Bake. 1943. Sequels of equine encephalomyelitis. Arch. Neurol. Psychiatry 49: 398– 413.
100. Norder, H.,, J. O. Lundström,, O. Kozuch, and, L. O. Magnius. 1996. Genetic relatedness of Sindbis virus strains from Europe, Middle East, and Africa. Virology 222: 440– 445.
101. Oberste, M. S.,, M. Fraire,, R. Navarro,, C. Zepeda,, M. L. Zarate,, G. V. Ludwig,, J. F. Konig,, S. C. Weaver,, J. F. Smith, and, R. Rico-Hesse. 1998. Association of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus subtype IE with two equine epizootics in Mexico. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 59: 100– 107.
102. Oberste, M. S.,, S. C. Weaver,, D. M. Watts, and, J. F. Smith. 1998. Identification and genetic analysis of Panama-genotype Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus subtype ID in Peru. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 58: 41– 46.
103. Olaleye, O. D.,, S. A. Omilabu, and, A. H. Fagbami. 1988. Igbo-Ora virus (an alphavirus isolated in Nigeria): a serological survey for haemagglutination inhibiting antibody in humans and domestic animals. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 82: 905– 906.
104. Palmer, R. J.,, and K. H. Finley. 1956. Sequelae of encephalitis: report of a study after the California epidemic. Calif. Med. 84: 98– 100.
105. Pialoux, G.,, B-A. Gaüzère,, S. Jauréguiberry, and, M. Strobel. 2007. Chikungunya, an epidemic arbovirosis. Lancet Infect. Dis. 7: 319– 327.
106. Pinheiro, F. P.,, R. B. Freitas,, J. F. Travassos da Rosa,, Y. B. Gabbay,, W. A. Mello, and, J. W. LeDuc. 1981. An outbreak of Mayaro virus disease in Belterra, Brazil. I. Clinical and virological findings. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 30: 674– 681.
107. Pittman, P. R.,, R. S. Makuch,, J. A. Mangiafico,, T. L. Cannon,, P. H. Gibbs, and, C. J. Peters. 1996. Long-term duration of detectable neutralizing antibodies after administration of live-attenuated VEE vaccine and following booster vaccination with inactivated VEE vaccine. Vaccine 14: 337– 343.
108. Powers, A. M.,, A. C. Brault,, Y. Shirako,, E. G. Strauss,, W. Kang,, J. H. Strauss, and, S. C. Weaver. 2001. Evolutionary relationships and systematics of the alphaviruses. J. Virol. 75: 10118– 10131.
109. Powers, A. M.,, A. C. Brault,, R. B. Tesh, and, S. C. Weaver. 2000. Re-emergence of chikungunya and o’nyong-nyong viruses: evidence for distinct geographical lineages and distant evolutionary relationships. J. Gen. Virol. 81: 471– 479.
110. Powers, A. M.,, M. S. Oberste,, A. C. Brault,, R. Rico-Hesse,, S. M. Schmura,, J. F. Smith,, W. Kang,, W. P. Sweeney, and, S. C. Weaver. 1997. Repeated emergence of epidemic/epizootic Venezuelan equine encephalitis from a single genotype of enzootic subtype ID virus. J. Virol. 71: 6697– 6705.
111. Przelomski, M. M.,, E. O’Rourke,, G. F. Grady,, V. P. Berardi, and, H. G. Markley. 1988. Eastern equine encephalitis in Massachusetts: a report of 16 cases, 1970–1984. Neurology 38: 736– 739.
112. Rezza, G.,, L. Nicoletti,, R. Angelini,, R. Romi,, A. C. Finarelli,, M. Panning,, P. Cordioli,, C. Fortuna,, S. Boros,, F. Magurano,, G. Silvi,, P. Angelini,, M. Dottori,, M. G. Ciufolini,, G. C. Majori, and, A. Cassone for the CHIKV Study Group. 2007. Infection with chikungunya virus in Italy: an outbreak in a temperate region. Lancet 370: 1840– 1846.
113. Rivas, F.,, L. A. Diaz,, V. M. Cardenas,, E. Daza,, L. Bruzon,, A. Alcala,, O. De la Hoz,, F. M. Caceres,, G. Aristizabal,, J. W. Martinez,, D. Revelo,, F. De la Hoz,, J. Boshell,, T. Camacho,, L. Calderon,, V. A. Olano,, L. I. Villarreal,, D. Roselli,, G. Alvarez,, G. Ludwig, and, T. Tsai. 1997. Epidemic Venezuelan equine encephalitis in La Guajira, Colombia, 1995. J. Infect. Dis. 175: 828– 832.
114. Robinson, M. C. 1955. An epidemic of virus disease in Southern Province, Tanganyika Territory, in 1952–53. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 49: 28– 32.
115. Rosato, R. R.,, F. F. Macasaet, and, P. B. Jahrling. 1988. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay detection of immunoglobulins G and M to Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus in vaccinated and naturally infected humans. J. Clin. Microbiol. 26: 421– 425.
116. Rozdilsky, B.,, H. E. Robertson, and, J. Chorney. 1968. Western encephalitis: report of eight fatal cases, Saskatchewan epidemic, 1965. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 98: 79– 86.
117. Rulli, N. E.,, J. Melton,, A. Wilmes,, G. Ewart, and, S. Mahalingam. 2007. The molecular and cellular aspects of arthritis due to alphavirus infections. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1102: 96– 108.
118. Russell, R. 2002. Ross River virus: ecology and distribution. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 47: 1– 31.
119. Sammels, L. M.,, M. D. Lindsay,, M. Poidinger,, R. J. Coelen, and, J. S. Mackenzie. 1999. Geographic distribution and evolution of Sindbis virus in Australia. J. Gen. Virol. 80: 739– 748.
120. Sanchez, J. L.,, E. T. Takafuji,, W. M. Lednar,, J. W. LeDuc,, F. F. Macasaet,, J. A. Mangiafico,, R. R. Rosato,, D. P. Driggers, and, J. C. Haecker. 1984. Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis: report of an outbreak associated with jungle exposure. Mil. Med. 149: 618– 621.
121. Sanders, E. J.,, E. B. Rwaguma,, J. Kawamata,, N. Kiwanuka,, J. J. Lutwama,, F. P. Ssengooba,, M. Lamunu,, R. Najjemba,, W. A. Were,, G. Bagambisa, and, G. L. Campbell. 1999. O’nyong-nyong fever in south-central Uganda, 1996–97: description of the epidemic and results of a household-based seroprevalence survey. J. Infect. Dis. 180: 1436– 1443.
122. Sarkar, J. K.,, S. N. Chatterjee,, S. K. Chakravarti, and, A. C. Mitra. 1965. Chikungunya virus infection with haemorrhagic manifestations. Indian J. Med. Res. 53: 921– 925.
123. Schuffenecker, I.,, I. Iteman,, A. Michault,, S. Murri,, L. Frangeul,, M. C. Vaney,, R. Lavenir,, N. Pardigon,, J. M. Reynes,, F. Petinelli,, L. Biscornet,, L. Diancourt,, S. Michel,, S. Duquerroy,, G. Guigon,, M. P. Frenkiel,, A. C. Bréhin,, N. Cubito,, P. Desprès,, F. Kunst,, F. A. Rey,, H. Zeller, and, S. Brisse. 2006. Genome microevolution of chikungunya viruses causing the Indian Ocean outbreak. PLoS Med. 3: e263.
124. Schultz, D. R.,, J. S. Barthal, and, G. Garrett. 1977. Western equine encephalitis with rapid onset of parkinsonism. Neurology 27: 1095– 1096.
125. Sciple, G. W.,, G. Ray,, L. C. LaMotte,, P. Holden,, P. Gardner,, G. Crane, and, M. D. Bublis. 1967. Western encephalitis with recovery of virus from cerebrospinal fluid. Neurology 17: 169– 171.
126. Shinefield, H. R.,, and T. E. Townsend. 1953. Transplacental transmission of western equine encephalomyelitis. J. Pediatr. 43: 21– 25.
127. Simon, F.,, P. Parola,, M. Grandadam,, S. Fourcade,, M. Oliver,, P. Brouqui,, P. Hance,, P. Kraemer,, A. Ali Mohamed,, X. de Lamballerie,, R. Charrel, and, H. Tolou. 2007. Chikungunya infection: an emerging rheumatism among travelers returned from Indian Ocean islands. Report of 47 cases. Medicine (Baltimore) 86: 123– 137.
128. Soden, M.,, H. Vasudevan,, B. Roberts,, R. J. Coelen,, G. Hamlin,, S. Vasudevan, and, J. La Brooy. 2000. Detection of viral ribonucleic acid and histologic analysis of inflamed synovium in Ross River virus infection. Arthritis Rheum. 43: 365– 369.
129. Somekh, E.,, M. P. Glode,, T. T. Reiley, and, T. F. Tsai. 1991. Multiple intracranial calcifications after western equine encephalitis. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 10: 408– 409.
130. Strauss, J. H.,, and E. G. Strauss. 1994. The alphaviruses: gene expression, replication, and evolution. Microbiol. Rev. 58: 491– 562.
131. Suhrbier, A.,, and M. La Linn. 2004. Clinical and pathological aspects of arthritis due to Ross River virus and other alphaviruses. Curr. Opin. Rheumatol. 16: 374– 379.
132. Tesh, R. B.,, D. M. Watts,, K. L. Russell,, C. Damodaran,, C. Calampa,, C. Cabezas,, G. Ramirez,, B. Vasquez,, C. G. Hayes,, C. A. Rossi,, A. M. Powers,, C. L. Hice,, L. J. Chandler,, B. C. Cropp,, N. Karabatsos,, J. T. Roehrig, and, D. J. Gubler. 1999. Mayaro virus disease: an emerging mosquito-borne zoonosis in tropical South America. Clin. Infect. Dis. 28: 67– 73.
133. Thein, S.,, M. La Linn,, J. Aaskov,, M. M. Aung,, M. Aye,, A. Zaw, and, A. Myint. 1992. Development of a simple indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of immunoglobulin M antibody in serum from patients following an outbreak of chikungunya virus infection in Yangon, Myanmar. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 86: 438– 442.
134. Thiruvengadam, K. V.,, V. Kalyanasundaram, and, J. Rajgopal. 1965. Clinical and pathological studies on chikungunya fever in Madras city. Indian J. Med. Res. 53: 729– 744.
135. Tikasingh, E. S.,, P. Ardoin,, C. O. Everard, and, J. B. Davies. 1973. Eastern equine encephalitis in Trinidad. Epidemiological investigations following two human cases of South American strain in Santa Cruz. Trop. Geogr. Med. 25: 355– 361.
136. Tsetsarkin, K. A.,, D. L. Vanlandingham,, C. E. McGee, and, S. Higgs. 2007. A single mutation in chikungunya virus affects vector specificity and epidemic potential. PLoS Pathog. 3: e201.
137. Uemura, Y.,, J. H. Yang,, C. M. Heldebrant,, K. Takechi, and, K. Yokoyama. 1994. Inactivation and elimination of viruses during preparation of human intravenous immunoglobulin. Vox Sang. 67: 246– 254.
138. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and National Institutes of Health. 1999. Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (BMBL), 4th ed. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. http://www.cdc.gov/OD/ohs/biosfty/bmbl4/bmbl4toc.htm.
139. Wang, E.,, R. Barrera,, J. Boshell,, C. Ferro,, J. E. Freier,, J. C. Navarro,, R. Salas,, C. Vasquez, and, S. C. Weaver. 1999. Genetic and phenotypic changes accompanying the emergence of epizootic subtype IC Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses from an enzootic subtype ID progenitor. J. Virol. 73: 4266– 4271.
140. Wang, E.,, S. Paesslar,, P. V. Aguilar,, D. R. Smith,, L. L. Coffey,, W. Kang,, M. Pfeffer,, J. Olsen,, P. J. Blair,, C. Guevara,, J. Estrada-Franco, and, S. C. Weaver. 2005. A novel, rapid assay for detection and differentiation of serotype-specific antibodies to Venezuelan equine encephalitis complex alphaviruses. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 72: 805– 810.
141. Watts, D. M.,, J. Callahan,, C. Rossi,, M. S. Oberste,, J. T. Roehrig,, M. T. Wooster,, J. F. Smith,, C. B. Cropp,, E. M. Gentrau,, N. Karabatsos,, D. Gübler, and, C. G. Hayes. 1998. Venezuelan equine encephalitis febrile cases among humans in the Peruvian Amazon River region. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 58: 35– 40.
142. Weaver. S. C.,, T. K. Frey,, H. V. Huang,, R. M. Kinney,, C. M. Rice,, J. T. Roehrig,, R. E. Shope, and, E. G. Strauss. 2005. Family Togaviridae, p. 999–1008. In C. M. Fauquet,, M. A. Mayo,, J. Maniloff,, U. Desselberger, and, L. A. Ball (ed.), Virus Taxonomy: Classification and Nomenclature of Viruses. Eighth Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
143. Weaver, S. C.,, M. Pfeffer,, K. Marriott,, W. Kang, and, R. M. Kinney. 1999. Genetic evidence for the origins of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus subtype IAB outbreaks. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 60: 441– 448.
144. Weaver, S. C.,, A. C. Brault,, W. Kang, and, J. J. Holland. 1999. Genetic and fitness changes accompanying adaptation of an arbovirus to vertebrate and invertebrate cells. J. Virol. 73: 4316– 4326.
145. Weaver, S. C.,, W. Kang,, Y. Shirako,, T. Rumenapf,, E. G. Strauss, and, J. H. Strauss. 1997. Recombinational history and molecular evolution of western equine encephalomyelitis complex alphaviruses. J. Virol. 71: 613– 623.
146. Weaver, S. C.,, R. Salas,, R. Rico-Hesse,, G. V. Ludwig,, M. S. Oberste,, J. Boshell, and, R. B. Tesh. 1996. Re-emergence of epidemic Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis in South America. Lancet 348: 436– 440.
147. Wenger, F. 1977. Venezuelan equine encephalitis. Teratology 16: 359– 362.
148. Wesselhoeft, C.,, E. C. Smith, and, C. F. Branch. 1938. Human encephalitis: eight fatal cases with four due to virus of equine encephalomyelitis. JAMA 111: 1735– 1741.
149. Williams, M. C.,, J. P. Woodall, and, J. D. Gillett. 1965. O’nyong-nyong fever: an epidemic virus disease in east Africa. VII. Virus isolations from man and serological studies up to July 1961. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 59: 186– 197.
150. Young, N. A.,, and K. M. Johnson. 1969. Antigenic variants of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus: their geographic distribution and epidemiologic significance. Am. J. Epidemiol. 89: 286– 307.

Tables

Alphaviruses
[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54-1,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54-1,properties={foaf_givenname=David W., foaf_name=David W. Smith, foaf_surname=Smith}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54-2,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54-2,properties={foaf_givenname=John S., foaf_name=John S. Mackenzie, foaf_surname=Mackenzie}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54-3,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54-3,properties={foaf_givenname=Scott C., foaf_name=Scott C. Weaver, foaf_surname=Weaver}]]
Citation: Smith D, Mackenzie J, Weaver S. 2009. Alphaviruses, p 1241-1274. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch54
/content/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54.ch54tab01
TABLE 1
Selected characteristics of alphaviruses
Generic image for table
TABLE 1

Selected characteristics of alphaviruses

Citation: Smith D, Mackenzie J, Weaver S. 2009. Alphaviruses, p 1241-1274. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch54
/content/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54.ch54tab02
TABLE 2
Alphavirus proteins
Generic image for table
TABLE 2

Alphavirus proteins

Citation: Smith D, Mackenzie J, Weaver S. 2009. Alphaviruses, p 1241-1274. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch54
/content/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54.ch54tab03
TABLE 3
Initial diagnosis of diseases ultimately proven by laboratory test to be either WEE or St. Louis encephalitis
Generic image for table
TABLE 3

Initial diagnosis of diseases ultimately proven by laboratory test to be either WEE or St. Louis encephalitis

Citation: Smith D, Mackenzie J, Weaver S. 2009. Alphaviruses, p 1241-1274. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch54
/content/10.1128/9781555815981.ch54.ch54tab04
TABLE 4
Precautions to minimize exposure to mosquitoes and ticks
Generic image for table
TABLE 4

Precautions to minimize exposure to mosquitoes and ticks

Citation: Smith D, Mackenzie J, Weaver S. 2009. Alphaviruses, p 1241-1274. In Richman D, Whitley R, Hayden F (ed), Clinical Virology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch54

Back to top
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Please check the format of the address you have entered.
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error