Chlamydiaceae*

Charlotte Gaydos; Andreas Essig

doi:10.1128/9781555816728.ch60

Chapter 60 : Chlamydiaceae *

Authors: Charlotte Gaydos, Andreas Essig

Content Type: Reference

Publication Year: 2011

Category: Clinical Microbiology

Book DOI: 10.1128/9781555816728

Chapter DOI: 10.1128/9781555816728.ch60

MyBook is a cheap paperback edition of the original book and will be sold at uniform, low price.

Preview this chapter:

Chlamydiaceae * , Page 1 of 2

< Previous page | Next page > /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555816728/9781555814632_Chap60-1.gif /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555816728/9781555814632_Chap60-2.gif

Abstract:

The Chlamydiaceae contain the known human pathogens Chlamydia trachomatis, Chlamydia pneumoniae, and Chlamydia psittaci as well as organisms such as C. abortus and C. felis that have been associated only rarely with human infections. An overview about ranges of sensitivity and specificity for common diagnostic tests for C. trachomatis in urogenital specimens is provided in this chapter. Problems associated with cell culture isolation of chlamydiae, including technical complexity and long turnaround time, and stringent requirements related to collection, transport, and storage of specimens have driven the development of commercially available nonculture methods that have found widespread application in many routine laboratories. The basic procedure for detection of isolated chlamydiae involves demonstration of intracytoplasmic inclusions by fluorescent-antibody staining that provides both morphological and immunological identification of chlamydiae. Serologic testing may be helpful in the diagnosis of human ornithosis, LGV, neonatal pneumonia caused by C. trachomatis, and respiratory C. pneumoniae infections. The most commonly used serological assay formats include the complement fixation (CF) test, the MIF test, and the EIA to detect immunoglobulin M (IgM), IgA, IgG, or total classes of antibodies, with either family, species, or serotype specificity. Evaluation of antimicrobial resistance and potential clinical treatment failure in chlamydial infection is hampered by the lack of standardized antimicrobial susceptibility tests and the fact that in vitro resistance does not correlate with the patient’s clinical outcome.

Citation: Gaydos C, Essig A. 2011. Chlamydiaceae * , p 986-1000. In Versalovic J, Carroll K, Funke G, Jorgensen J, Landry M, Warnock D (ed), Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 10th Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555816728.ch60

Key Concept Ranking

Nucleic Acid Amplification Techniques: 0.45272496
Microbial Ecology: 0.44764057
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism: 0.4236446
Type III Secretion System: 0.4232151
Lower Respiratory Tract Infections: 0.42271432

0.45272496

Highlighted Text: Show | Hide

Full text loading...

Figures

Chlamydiaceae*

[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555816728.chap60-1,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555816728.chap60-1,properties={foaf_givenname=Charlotte, foaf_name=Charlotte Gaydos, foaf_surname=Gaydos}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555816728.chap60-2,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555816728.chap60-2,properties={foaf_givenname=Andreas, foaf_name=Andreas Essig, foaf_surname=Essig}]]

/content/10.1128/9781555816728.chap60.fig60-1

FIGURE 1

Identification of C. trachomatis by staining intracytoplasmic inclusions with iodine (A) and an FITC-conjugated monoclonal antibody directed at the MOMP (B). Transmission electron microscopy of a C. pneumoniae-infected cell shows an intracytoplasmic inclusion impressing the cell nucleus (C) and filled with EBs and RBs (D) at 60 h postinfection; the arrowhead shows a dividing RB. Identification of culture-grown C. pneumoniae by fluorescence in situ hybridization using rRNA targeted oligonucleotide probes (E). Simultaneous use of a Cy5-labeled probe that targets a chlamydial 16S rRNA sequence common to all members of the Chlamydiaceae (blue) and a Cy3-labeled probe specific for C. pneumoniae (red). Due to the overlap of colors, C. pneumoniae appears purple in the composite image; host cells are counterstained by a 5( 6 )-carboxyfluorescein-N-hydroxysuccinimide ester (FLUOS)-labeled eukaryotic probe (green). IgG-MIF image (magnification, ×400) showing bright homogeneous fluorescence of C. pneumoniae EBs at a serum dilution of 1:512 (F). (Photographs courtesy of Sonja Maier, Sven Poppert, and Ulrike Simnacher, Department of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Ulm; and Matthias Horn, Division of Microbial Ecology, University of Vienna.)

10.1128/9781555816728/fig60-1_thmb.gif

10.1128/9781555816728/fig60-1.gif

FIGURE 1

References

/content/book/10.1128/9781555816728.chap60

1. Apfalter, P.,, W. Barousch,, M. Nehr,, A. Makristathis,, B. Willinger,, M. Rotter,, and A. M. Hirschl. 2003. Comparison of a new quantitative ompA-based real-time PCR TaqMan assay for detection of Chlamydia pneumoniae DNA in respiratory specimens with four conventional PCR assays. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41: 592– 600.

2. Belland, R. J.,, G. Zhong,, D. D. Crane,, D. Hogan,, D. Sturdevant,, J. Sharma,, W. L. Beatty,, and H. D. Caldwell. 2003. Genomic transcriptional profiling of the developmental cycle of Chlamydia trachomatis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100: 8478– 8483.

3. Bennedsen, M.,, L. Berthelsen,, and I. Lind. 2002. Performance of three microimmunofluorescence assays for detection of Chlamydia pneumoniae immunoglobulin M, G, and A antibodies. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 9: 833– 839.

4. Black, C. M. 1997. Current methods of laboratory diagnosis of Chlamydia trachomatis infections. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 10: 160– 184.

5. Black, C. M.,, E. M. Driebe,, L. A. Howard,, N. N. Fajman,, M. K. Sawyer,, R. G. Girardet,, R. L. Sautter,, E. Greenwald,, C. M. Beck-Sague,, E. R. Unger,, J. U. Igietseme,, and M. R. Hammerschlag. 2009. Multicenter study of nucleic acid amplification tests for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae in children being evaluated for sexual abuse. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 28: 608– 613.

6. Black, C. M.,, J. Marrazzo,, R. E. Johnson,, E. W. Hook III,, R. B. Jones,, T. A. Green,, J. Schachter,, W. E. Stamm,, G. Bolan,, M. E. St. Louis, and D. H. Martin. 2002. Head-to- head multicenter comparison of DNA probe and nucleic acid amplification tests for Chlamydia trachomatis infection in women performed with an improved reference standard. J. Clin. Microbiol. 40: 3757– 3763.

7. Borel, N.,, E. Kempf,, H. Hotzel,, E. Schubert,, P. Torgerson,, P. Slickers,, R. Ehricht,, T. Tasara,, A. Pospischil,, and K. Sachse. 2008. Direct identification of chlamydiae from clinical samples using a DNA microarray assay: a validation study. Mol. Cell. Probes 22: 55– 64.

8. Boyadzhyan, B.,, T. Yashina,, J. H. Yatabe,, M. Patnaik,, and C. S. Hill. 2004. Comparison of the APTIMA CT and GC assays with the APTIMA combo 2 assay, the Abbott LCx assay, and direct fluorescent-antibody and culture assays for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42: 3089– 3093.

9. Byrne, G. I.,, and D. M. Ojcius. 2004. Chlamydia and apoptosis: life and death decisions of an intracellular pathogen. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2: 802– 808.

10. Campbell, L. A.,, M. M. Perez,, D. J. Hamilton,, C. C. Kuo,, and J. T. Grayston. 1992. Detection of Chlamydia pneumoniae by polymerase chain reaction. J. Clin. Microbiol. 30: 434– 439.

11. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2009. Sexually transmitted disease surveillance, 2007. CDC, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, GA. http://www.cdc.gov/std/stats07/toc.htm..

12. Chen, C. Y.,, K. H. Chi,, S. Alexander,, C. A. Ison,, and R. C. Ballard. 2008. A real-time quadriplex PCR assay for the diagnosis of rectal lymphogranuloma venereum and non-lymphogranuloma venereum Chlamydia trachomatis infections. Sex. Transm. Infect. 84: 273– 276.

13. Chernesky, M. A.,, D. H. Martin,, E. W. Hook,, D. Willis,, J. Jordan,, S. Wang,, J. R. Lane,, D. Fuller,, and J. Schachter. 2005. Ability of new APTIMA CT and APTIMA GC assays to detect Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae in male urine and urethral swabs. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43: 127– 131.

14. Dean, D.,, R. J. Suchland,, and W. E. Stamm. 2000. Evidence for long-term cervical persistence of Chlamydia trachomatis by omp1 genotyping. J. Infect. Dis. 182: 909– 916.

15. den Hartog, J. E.,, C. M. Lardenoije,, J. L. Severens,, J. A. Land,, J. L. Evers,, and A. G. Kessels. 2008. Screening strategies for tubal factor subfertility. Hum. Reprod. 23: 1840– 1848.

16. Dowell, S. F.,, R. W. Peeling,, J. Boman,, G. M. Carlone,, B. S. Fields,, J. Guarner,, M. R. Hammerschlag,, L. A. Jackson,, C. C. Kuo,, M. Maass,, T. O. Messmer,, D. F. Talkington,, M. L. Tondella,, and S. R. Zaki. 2001. Standardizing Chlamydia pneumoniae assays: recommendations from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (USA) and the Laboratory Centre for Disease Control (Canada). Clin. Infect. Dis. 33: 492– 503.

17. Dugan, J.,, D. D. Rockey,, L. Jones,, and A. A. Andersen. 2004. Tetracycline resistance in Chlamydia suis mediated by genomic islands inserted into the chlamydial inv-like gene. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48: 3989– 3995.

18. Essig, A.,, P. Zucs,, M. Susa,, G. Wasenauer,, U. Mamat,, M. Hetzel,, U. Vogel,, S. Wieshammer,, H. Brade,, and R. Marre. 1995. Diagnosis of ornithosis by cell culture and polymerase chain reaction in a patient with chronic pneumonia. Clin. Infect. Dis. 21: 1495– 1497.

19. Everett, K. D.,, R. M. Bush,, and A. A. Andersen. 1999. Emended description of the order Chlamydiales, proposal of Parachlamydiaceae fam. nov. and Simkaniaceae fam. nov., each containing one monotypic genus, revised taxonomy of the family Chlamydiaceae, including a new genus and five new species, and standards for the identification of organisms. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 49: 415– 440.

20. Forsbach-Birk, V.,, U. Simnacher,, K. I. Pfrepper,, E. Soutschek,, A. O. Kiselev,, M. F. Lampe,, T. Meyer,, E. Straube,, and A. Essig. 2010. Identification and evaluation of a combination of chlamydial antigens to support the diagnosis of severe and invasive Chlamydia trachomatis infections. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 16: 1237– 1244.

21. Fukushi, H.,, and K. Hirai. 1992. Proposal of Chlamydia pecorum sp. nov. for Chlamydia strains derived from ruminants. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 42: 306– 308.

22. Gaydos, C. A.,, K. A. Crotchfelt,, M. R. Howell,, S. Kralian,, P. Hauptman,, and T. C. Quinn. 1998. Molecular amplification assays to detect chlamydial infections in urine specimens from high school female students and to monitor the persistence of chlamydial DNA after therapy. J. Infect. Dis. 177: 417– 424.

23. Gaydos, C. A.,, D. V. Ferrero,, and J. Papp. 2008. Laboratory aspects of screening men for Chlamydia trachomatis in the new millennium. Sex. Transm. Dis. 35: S45– S50.

24. Gaydos, C. A.,, T. C. Quinn,, and J. J. Eiden. 1992. Identification of Chlamydia pneumoniae by DNA amplification of the 16S rRNA gene. J. Clin. Microbiol. 30: 796– 800.

25. Gaydos, C. A.,, T. C. Quinn,, D. Willis,, A. Weissfeld,, E. W. Hook,, D. H. Martin,, D. V. Ferrero,, and J. Schachter. 2003. Performance of the APTIMA Combo 2 assay for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae in female urine and endocervical swab specimens. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41: 304– 309.

26. Gaydos, C. A.,, P. M. Roblin,, M. R. Hammerschlag,, C. L. Hyman,, J. J. Eiden,, J. Schachter,, and T. C. Quinn. 1994. Diagnostic utility of PCR-enzyme immunoassay, culture, and serology for detection of Chlamydia pneumoniae in symptomatic and asymptomatic patients. J. Clin. Microbiol. 32: 903– 905.

27. Geens, T.,, A. Desplanques,, M. Van Loock,, B. M. Bonner,, E. F. Kaleta,, S. Magnino,, A. A. Andersen,, K. D. Everett,, and D. Vanrompay. 2005. Sequencing of the Chlamydophila psittaci ompA gene reveals a new genotype, E/B, and the need for a rapid discriminatory genotyping method. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43: 2456– 2461.

28. Geens, T.,, A. Dewitte,, N. Boon,, and D. Vanrompay. 2005. Development of a Chlamydophila psittaci species-specific and genotype-specific real-time PCR. Vet. Res. 36: 787– 797.

29. Geisler, W. M. 2007. Management of uncomplicated Chlamydia trachomatis infections in adolescents and adults: evidence reviewed for the 2006 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines. Clin. Infect. Dis. 44( Suppl. 3): S77– S83.

30. Gomes, J. P.,, A. Nunes,, C. Florindo,, M. A. Ferreira,, I. Santo,, J. Azevedo,, and M. J. Borrego. 2009. Lymphogranuloma venereum in Portugal: unusual events and new variants during 2007. Sex. Transm. Dis. 36: 88– 91.

31. Grayston, J. T.,, L. A. Campbell,, C. C. Kuo,, C. H. Mordhorst,, P. Saikku,, D. H. Thom,, and S. P. Wang. 1990. A new respiratory tract pathogen: Chlamydia pneumoniae strain TWAR. J. Infect. Dis. 161: 618– 625.

32. Grayston, J. T.,, R. A. Kronmal,, L. A. Jackson,, A. F. Parisi,, J. B. Muhlestein,, J. D. Cohen,, W. J. Rogers,, J. R. Crouse,, S. L. Borrowdale,, E. Schron,, and C. Knirsch. 2005. Azithromycin for the secondary prevention of coronary events. N. Engl. J. Med. 352: 1637– 1645.

33. Greub, G. 2009. Parachlamydia acanthamoebae, an emerging agent of pneumonia. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 15: 18– 28.

34. Hammerschlag, M. R.,, K. Chirgwin,, P. M. Roblin,, M. Gelling,, W. Dumornay,, L. Mandel,, P. Smith,, and J. Schachter. 1992. Persistent infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae following acute respiratory illness. Clin. Infect. Dis. 14: 178– 182.

35. Heinemann, M.,, W. V. Kern,, D. Bunjes,, R. Marre,, and A. Essig. 2000. Severe Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in patients with neutropenia: case reports and literature review. Clin. Infect. Dis. 31: 181– 184.

36. Hermann, C.,, K. Gueinzius,, A. Oehme,, S. Von Aulock,, E. Straube,, and T. Hartung. 2004. Comparison of quantitative and semiquantitative enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for immunoglobulin G against Chlamydophila pneumoniae to a microimmunofluorescence test for use with patients with respiratory tract infections. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42: 2476– 2479.

37. Herrmann, B.,, A. Torner,, N. Low,, M. Klint,, A. Nilsson,, I. Velicko,, T. Soderblom,, and A. Blaxhult. 2008. Emergence and spread of Chlamydia trachomatis variant, Sweden. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 14: 1462– 1465.

38. Hobbs, M. M.,, P. B. Van Der,, P. Totten,, C. A. Gaydos,, A. Wald,, T. Warren,, R. L. Winer,, R. L. Cook,, C. D. Deal,, M. E. Rogers,, J. Schachter,, K. K. Holmes,, and D. H. Martin. 2008. From the NIH: proceedings of a workshop on the importance of self-obtained vaginal specimens for detection of sexually transmitted infections. Sex. Transm. Dis. 35: 8– 13.

39. Horn, M.,, A. Collingro,, S. Schmitz-Esser,, C. L. Beier,, U. Purkhold,, B. Fartmann,, P. Brandt,, G. J. Nyakatura,, M. Droege,, D. Frishman,, T. Rattei,, H. W. Mewes,, and M. Wagner. 2004. Illuminating the evolutionary history of chlamydiae. Science 304: 728– 730.

40. Hsieh, Y. H.,, M. R. Howell,, J. C. Gaydos,, K. T. McKee, Jr.,, T. C. Quinn,, and C. A. Gaydos. 2003. Preference among female Army recruits for use of self-administrated vaginal swabs or urine to screen for Chlamydia trachomatis genital infections. Sex. Transm. Dis. 30: 769– 773.

41. Hybiske, K.,, and R. S. Stephens. 2007. Mechanisms of host cell exit by the intracellular bacterium Chlamydia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104: 11430– 11435.

42. Ieven, M. M.,, and V. Y. Hoymans. 2005. Involvement of Chlamydia pneumoniae in atherosclerosis: more evidence for lack of evidence. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43: 19– 24.

43. Joesoef, M. R.,, H. S. Weinstock,, C. K. Kent,, J. M. Chow,, M. R. Boudov,, F. M. Parvez,, T. Cox,, T. Lincoln,, J. L. Miller,, and M. Sternberg. 2009. Sex and age correlates of Chlamydia prevalence in adolescents and adults entering correctional facilities, 2005: implications for screening policy. Sex. Transm. Dis. 36: S67– S71.

44. Johnson, R. E.,, W. J. Newhall,, J. R. Papp,, J. S. Knapp,, C. M. Black,, T. L. Gift,, R. Steece,, L. E. Markowitz,, O. J. Devine,, C. M. Walsh,, S. Wang,, D. C. Gunter,, K. L. Irwin,, S. DeLisle,, and S. M. Berman. 2002. Screening tests to detect Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae infections—2002. MMWR Recommend. Rep. 51: 1– 38.

45. Kacena, K. A.,, S. B. Quinn,, M. R. Howell,, G. E. Madico,, T. C. Quinn,, and C. A. Gaydos. 1998. Pooling urine samples for ligase chain reaction screening for genital Chlamydia trachomatis infection in asymptomatic women. J. Clin. Microbiol. 36: 481– 485.

46. Kahane, S.,, K. D. Everett,, N. Kimmel,, and M. G. Friedman. 1999. Simkania negevensis strain ZT: growth, antigenic and genome characteristics. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 49: 815– 820.

47. Kalman, S.,, W. Mitchell,, R. Marathe,, C. Lammel,, J. Fan,, R. W. Hyman,, L. Olinger,, J. Grimwood,, R. W. Davis,, and R. S. Stephens. 1999. Comparative genomes of Chlamydia pneumoniae and C. trachomatis. Nat. Genet. 21: 385– 389.

48. Katusic, D.,, I. Petricek,, Z. Mandic,, I. Petric,, J. Salopek-Rabatic,, V. Kruzic,, K. Oreskovic,, J. Sikic,, and G. Petricek. 2003. Azithromycin vs doxycycline in the treatment of inclusion conjunctivitis. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 135: 447– 451.

49. Kent, C. K.,, J. K. Chaw,, W. Wong,, S. Liska,, S. Gibson,, G. Hubbard,, and J. D. Klausner. 2005. Prevalence of rectal, urethral, and pharyngeal chlamydia and gonorrhea detected in 2 clinical settings among men who have sex with men: San Francisco, California, 2003. Clin. Infect. Dis. 41: 67– 74.

50. Kumar, S., and M. R. Hammerschlag. 2007. Acute respiratory infection due to Chlamydia pneumoniae: current status of diagnostic methods. Clin. Infect. Dis. 44: 568– 576.

51. Kuo, C. C.,, L. A. Jackson,, L. A. Campbell,, and J. T. Grayston. 1995. Chlamydia pneumoniae (TWAR). Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 8: 451– 461.

52. Lau, C. Y.,, and A. K. Qureshi. 2002. Azithromycin versus doxycycline for genital chlamydial infections: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Sex. Transm. Dis. 29: 497– 502.

53. Levett, P. N.,, K. Brandt,, K. Olenius,, C. Brown,, K. Montgomery,, and G. B. Horsman. 2008. Evaluation of three automated nucleic acid amplification systems for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae in first-void urine specimens. J. Clin. Microbiol. 46: 2109– 2111.

54. Lim, W. S.,, J. T. Macfarlane,, T. C. Boswell,, T. G. Harrison,, D. Rose,, M. Leinonen,, and P. Saikku. 2001. Study of community acquired pneumonia aetiology (SCAPA) in adults admitted to hospital: implications for management guidelines. Thorax 56: 296– 301.

55. Lindan, C.,, M. Mathur,, S. Kumta,, H. Jerajani,, A. Gogate,, J. Schachter,, and J. Moncada. 2005. Utility of pooled urine specimens for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae in men attending public sexually transmitted infection clinics in Mumbai, India, by PCR. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43: 1674– 1677.

56. Mabey, D.,, and R. W. Peeling. 2002. Lymphogranuloma venereum. Sex. Transm. Infect. 78: 90– 92.

57. Madico, G.,, T. C. Quinn,, J. Boman,, and C. A. Gaydos. 2000. Touchdown enzyme time release-PCR for detection and identification of Chlamydia trachomatis, C. pneumoniae, and C. psittaci using the 16S and 16S-23S spacer rRNA genes. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38: 1085– 1093.

58. Mahilum-Tapay, L.,, V. Laitila,, J. J. Wawrzyniak,, H. H. Lee,, S. Alexander,, C. Ison,, A. Swain,, P. Barber,, I. Ushiro-Lumb,, and B. T. Goh. 2007. New point of care Chlamydia Rapid Test—bridging the gap between diagnosis and treatment: performance evaluation study. BMJ 335: 1190– 1194.

59. Mahony, J.,, S. Chong,, D. Jang,, K. Luinstra,, M. Faught,, D. Dalby,, J. Sellors,, and M. Chernesky. 1998. Urine specimens from pregnant and nonpregnant women inhibitory to amplification of Chlamydia trachomatis nucleic acid by PCR, ligase chain reaction, and transcription-mediated amplification: identification of urinary substances associated with inhibition and removal of inhibitory activity. J. Clin. Microbiol. 36: 3122– 3126.

60. Malinverni, R.,, C. C. Kuo,, L. A. Campbell,, and J. T. Grayston. 1995. Reactivation of Chlamydia pneumoniae lung infection in mice by cortisone. J. Infect. Dis. 172: 593– 594.

61. Marshall, R.,, M. Chernesky,, D. Jang,, E. W. Hook,, C. P. Cartwright,, B. Howell-Adams,, S. Ho,, J. Welk,, J. Lai-Zhang,, J. Brashear,, B. Diedrich,, K. Otis,, E. Webb,, J. Robinson,, and H. Yu. 2007. Characteristics of the m2000 automated sample preparation and multiplex real-time PCR system for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae. J. Clin. Microbiol. 45: 747– 751.

62. McLean, C. A.,, B. P. Stoner,, and K. A. Workowski. 2007. Treatment of lymphogranuloma venereum. Clin. Infect. Dis. 44( Suppl. 3): S147– S152.

63. Messmer, T. O.,, S. K. Skelton,, J. F. Moroney,, H. Daugharty,, and B. S. Fields. 1997. Application of a nested, multiplex PCR to psittacosis outbreaks. J. Clin. Microbiol. 35: 2043– 2046. ( Erratum, 36:1821, 1998.).

64. Mitchell, S. L.,, B. J. Wolff,, W. L. Thacker,, P. G. Ciembor,, C. R. Gregory,, K. D. Everett,, B. W. Ritchie,, and J. M. Winchell. 2009. Genotyping of Chlamydophila psittaci by real-time PCR and high-resolution melt analysis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 47: 175– 181.

65. Moller, J. K.,, L. N. Pedersen,, and K. Persson. 2008. Comparison of Gen-probe transcription-mediated amplification, Abbott PCR, and Roche PCR assays for detection of wild-type and mutant plasmid strains of Chlamydia trachomatis in Sweden. J. Clin. Microbiol. 46: 3892– 3895.

66. Moroney, J. F.,, R. Guevara,, C. Iverson,, F. M. Chen,, S. K. Skelton,, T. O. Messmer,, B. Plikaytis,, P. O. Williams,, P. Blake,, and J. C. Butler. 1998. Detection of chlamydiosis in a shipment of pet birds, leading to recognition of an outbreak of clinically mild psittacosis in humans. Clin. Infect. Dis. 26: 1425– 1429.

67. Morre, S. A.,, C. Munk,, K. Persson,, S. Kruger-Kjaer,, R. van Dijk,, C. J. Meijer,, and A. J. van Den Brule. 2002. Comparison of three commercially available peptide-based immunoglobulin G (IgG) and IgA assays to microimmunofluorescence assay for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis antibodies. J. Clin. Microbiol. 40: 584– 587.

68. Ness, R. B.,, D. E. Soper,, H. E. Richter,, H. Randall,, J. F. Peipert,, D. B. Nelson,, D. Schubeck,, S. G. McNeeley,, W. Trout,, D. C. Bass,, K. Hutchison,, K. Kip,, and R. C. Brunham. 2008. Chlamydia antibodies, chlamydia heat shock protein, and adverse sequelae after pelvic inflammatory disease: the PID Evaluation and Clinical Health (PEACH) Study. Sex. Transm. Dis. 35: 129– 135.

69. Newhall, W. J.,, R. E. Johnson,, S. DeLisle,, D. Fine,, A. Hadgu,, B. Matsuda,, D. Osmond,, J. Campbell,, and W. E. Stamm. 1999. Head-to-head evaluation of five chlamydia tests relative to a quality-assured culture standard. J. Clin. Microbiol. 37: 681– 685.

70. Nieuwenhuis, R. F.,, J. M. Ossewaarde,, H. M. Gotz,, J. Dees,, H. B. Thio,, M. G. Thomeer,, J. C. den Hollander,, M. H. Neumann,, and W. I. van der Meijden. 2004. Resurgence of lymphogranuloma venereum in Western Europe: an outbreak of Chlamydia trachomatis serovar l2 proctitis in The Netherlands among men who have sex with men. Clin. Infect. Dis. 39: 996– 1003.

71. Pedersen, L. N.,, B. Herrmann,, and J. K. Moller. 2009. Typing Chlamydia trachomatis: from egg yolk to nanotechnology. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 55: 120– 130.

72. Peeling, R. W.,, S. P. Wang,, J. T. Grayston,, F. Blasi,, J. Boman,, A. Clad,, H. Freidank,, C. A. Gaydos,, J. Gnarpe,, T. Hagiwara,, R. B. Jones,, J. Orfila,, K. Persson,, M. Puolakkainen,, P. Saikku,, and J. Schachter. 2000. Chlamydia pneumoniae serology: interlaboratory variation in microimmunofluorescence assay results. J. Infect. Dis. 181( Suppl. 3): S426– S429.

73. Peipert, J. F. 2003. Clinical practice. Genital chlamydial infections. N. Engl. J. Med. 349: 2424– 2430.

74. Pickett, M. A.,, J. S. Everson,, P. J. Pead,, and I. N. Clarke. 2005. The plasmids of Chlamydia trachomatis and Chlamydophila pneumoniae (N16): accurate determination of copy number and the paradoxical effect of plasmid-curing agents. Microbiology 151: 893– 903.

75. Poppert, S.,, A. Essig,, R. Marre,, M. Wagner,, and M. Horn. 2002. Detection and differentiation of chlamydiae by fluorescence in situ hybridization. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68: 4081– 4089.

76. Pospischil, A.,, R. Thoma,, M. Hilbe,, P. Grest,, and J. O. Gebbers. 2002. Abortion in woman caused by caprine Chlamydophila abortus (Chlamydia psittaci serovar 1). Swiss Med. Wkly. 132: 64– 66.

77. Principi, N.,, S. Esposito,, F. Blasi,, and L. Allegra. 2001. Role of Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydia pneumoniae in children with community-acquired lower respiratory tract infections. Clin. Infect. Dis. 32: 1281– 1289.

78. Read, T. D.,, G. S. Myers,, R. C. Brunham,, W. C. Nelson,, I. T. Paulsen,, J. Heidelberg,, E. Holtzapple,, H. Khouri,, N. B. Federova,, H. A. Carty,, L. A. Umayam,, D. H. Haft,, J. Peterson,, M. J. Beanan,, O. White,, S. L. Salzberg,, R. C. Hsia,, G. McClarty,, R. G. Rank,, P. M. Bavoil,, and C. M. Fraser. 2003. Genome sequence of Chlamydophila caviae (Chlamydia psittaci GPIC): examining the role of niche-specific genes in the evolution of the Chlamydiaceae. Nucleic Acids Res. 31: 2134– 2147.

79. Reischl, U.,, N. Lehn,, U. Simnacher,, R. Marre,, and A. Essig. 2003. Rapid and standardized detection of Chlamydia pneumoniae using LightCycler real-time fluorescence PCR. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 22: 54– 57.

80. Ross, R. 1999. Atherosclerosis—an inflammatory disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 340: 115– 126.

81. Rours, I. G.,, M. M. Hammerschlag,, G. G. Van Doornum,, W. W. Hop,, R. R. de Groot,, D. H. Willemse,, H. H. Verbrugh,, and R. R. Verkooyen. 2009. Chlamydia trachomatis respiratory infection in Dutch infants. Arch. Dis. Child. 94: 705– 707.

82. Rours, I. G.,, M. R. Hammerschlag,, A. Ott,, T. J. De Faber,, H. A. Verbrugh,, R. de Groot,, and R. P. Verkooyen. 2008. Chlamydia trachomatis as a cause of neonatal conjunctivitis in Dutch infants. Pediatrics 121: e321– e326.

83. Rurangirwa, F. R.,, P. M. Dilbeck,, T. B. Crawford,, T. C. McGuire,, and T. F. McElwain. 1999. Analysis of the 16S rRNA gene of micro-organism WSU 86-1044 from an aborted bovine foetus reveals that it is a member of the order Chlamydiales: proposal of Waddliaceae fam. nov., Waddlia chondrophila gen. nov., sp. nov. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 49: 577– 581.

84. Sachse, K.,, K. Laroucau,, F. Vorimore,, S. Magnino,, J. Feige,, W. Muller,, S. Kube,, H. Hotzel,, E. Schubert,, P. Slickers,, and R. Ehricht. 2009. DNA microarray-based genotyping of Chlamydophila psittaci strains from culture and clinical samples. Vet. Microbiol. 135: 22– 30.

85. Saikku, P.,, M. Leinonen,, K. Mattila,, M. R. Ekman,, M. S. Nieminen,, P. H. Makela,, J. K. Huttunen,, and V. Valtonen. 1988. Serological evidence of an association of a novel Chlamydia, TWAR, with chronic coronary heart disease and acute myocardial infarction. Lancet ii: 983– 986.

86. Schachter, J.,, M. A. Chernesky,, D. E. Willis,, P. M. Fine,, D. H. Martin,, D. Fuller,, J. A. Jordan,, W. Janda,, and E. W. Hook III. 2005. Vaginal swabs are the specimens of choice when screening for Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae: results from a multicenter evaluation of the APTIMA assays for both infections. Sex. Transm. Dis. 32: 725– 728.

87. Schachter, J.,, J. M. Chow,, H. Howard,, G. Bolan,, and J. Moncada. 2006. Detection Chlamydia trachomatis by nucleic acid amplification testing: our evaluation suggests that CDC-recommended approaches for confirmatory testing are ill-advised. J. Clin. Microbiol. 44: 2512– 2517.

88. Schachter, J.,, W. M. McCormack,, M. A. Chernesky,, D. H. Martin,, P. B. Van Der,, P. A. Rice,, E. W. Hook III,, W. E. Stamm,, T. C. Quinn,, and J. M. Chow. 2003. Vaginal swabs are appropriate specimens for diagnosis of genital tract infection with Chlamydia trachomatis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41: 3784– 3789.

89. Schachter, J.,, J. Moncada,, S. Liska,, C. Shayevich,, and J. D. Klausner. 2008. Nucleic acid amplification tests in the diagnosis of chlamydial and gonococcal infections of the oropharynx and rectum in men who have sex with men. Sex. Transm. Dis. 35: 637– 642.

90. Schachter, J.,, R. S. Stephens,, P. Timms,, C. Kuo,, P. M. Bavoil,, S. Birkelund,, J. Boman,, H. Caldwell,, L. A. Campbell,, M. Chernesky,, G. Christiansen,, I. N. Clarke,, C. Gaydos,, J. T. Grayston,, T. Hackstadt,, R. Hsia,, B. Kaltenboeck,, M. Leinonnen,, D. Ojcius,, G. McClarty,, J. Orfila,, R. Peeling,, M. Puolakkainen,, T. C. Quinn,, R. G. Rank,, J. Raulston,, G. L. Ridgeway,, P. Saikku,, W. E. Stamm,, D. T. Taylor-Robinson,, S. P. Wang,, and P. B. Wyrick. 2001. Radical changes to chlamydial taxonomy are not necessary just yet. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 51: 249.

91. Schachter, J.,, and W. E. Stamm,. 1999. Chlamydia, p. 795– 806. In P. R. Murray,, E. J. Baron,, J. H. Jorgensen,, M. A. Pfaller,, and R. H. Yolken (ed.), Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 7th ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.

92. Scidmore, M. A. 2005. Cultivation and laboratory maintenance of Chlamydia trachomatis. Curr. Protoc. Microbiol. Chapter 11:Unit 11A1.

93. Solomon, A. W.,, R. W. Peeling,, A. Foster,, and D. C. Mabey. 2004. Diagnosis and assessment of trachoma. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 17: 982– 1011.

94. Stark, D.,, S. van Hal,, R. Hillman,, J. Harkness,, and D. Marriott. 2007. Lymphogranuloma venereum in Australia: anorectal Chlamydia trachomatis serovar L2b in men who have sex with men. J. Clin. Microbiol. 45: 1029– 1031.

95. Stephens, R. S.,, S. Kalman,, C. Lammel,, J. Fan,, R. Marathe,, L. Aravind,, W. Mitchell,, L. Olinger,, R. L. Tatusov,, Q. Zhao,, E. V. Koonin,, and R. W. Davis. 1998. Genome sequence of an obligate intracellular pathogen of humans: Chlamydia trachomatis. Science 282: 754– 759.

96. Stephens, R. S.,, G. Myers,, M. Eppinger,, and P. M. Bavoil. 2009. Divergence without difference: phylogenetics and taxonomy of Chlamydia resolved. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 55: 115– 119.

97. Stralin, K.,, E. Tornqvist,, M. S. Kaltoft,, P. Olcen,, and H. Holmberg. 2006. Etiologic diagnosis of adult bacterial pneumonia by culture and PCR applied to respiratory tract samples. J. Clin. Microbiol. 44: 643– 645.

98. Sturm, P. D.,, P. Moodley,, K. Govender,, L. Bohlken,, T. Vanmali,, and A. W. Sturm. 2005. Molecular diagnosis of lymphogranuloma venereum in patients with genital ulcer disease. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43: 2973– 2975.

99. Suchland, R. J.,, W. M. Geisler,, and W. E. Stamm. 2003. Methodologies and cell lines used for antimicrobial susceptibility testing of Chlamydia spp. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47: 636– 642.

100. Suchland, R. J.,, and W. E. Stamm. 1991. Simplified microtiter cell culture method for rapid immunotyping of Chlamydia trachomatis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 29: 1333– 1338.

101. Thomson, N. R.,, M. T. Holden,, C. Carder,, N. Lennard,, S. J. Lockey,, P. Marsh,, P. Skipp,, C. D. O’Connor,, I. Goodhead,, H. Norbertzcak,, B. Harris,, D. Ormond,, R. Rance,, M. A. Quail,, J. Parkhill,, R. S. Stephens,, and I. N. Clarke. 2008. Chlamydia trachomatis: genome sequence analysis of lymphogranuloma venereum isolates. Genome Res. 18: 161– 171.

102. Thomson, N. R.,, C. Yeats,, K. Bell,, M. T. Holden,, S. D. Bentley,, M. Livingstone,, A. M. Cerdeno-Tarraga,, B. Harris,, J. Doggett,, D. Ormond,, K. Mungall,, K. Clarke,, T. Feltwell,, Z. Hance,, M. Sanders,, M. A. Quail,, C. Price,, B. G. Barrell,, J. Parkhill,, and D. Longbottom. 2005. The Chlamydophila abortus genome sequence reveals an array of variable proteins that contribute to interspecies variation. Genome Res. 15: 629– 640.

103. Tondella, M. L.,, D. F. Talkington,, B. P. Holloway,, S. F. Dowell,, K. Cowley,, M. Soriano-Gabarro,, M. S. Elkind,, and B. S. Fields. 2002. Development and evaluation of real-time PCR-based fluorescence assays for detection of Chlamydia pneumoniae. J. Clin. Microbiol. 40: 575– 583.

104. Tong, C. Y.,, and M. Sillis. 1993. Detection of Chlamydia pneumoniae and Chlamydia psittaci in sputum samples by PCR. J. Clin. Pathol. 46: 313– 317.

105. Van der Bij, A. K.,, J. Spaargaren,, S. A. Morre,, H. S. Fennema,, A. Mindel,, R. A. Coutinho,, and H. J. de Vries. 2006. Diagnostic and clinical implications of anorectal lymphogranuloma venereum in men who have sex with men: a retrospective case-control study. Clin. Infect. Dis. 42: 186– 194.

106. Van Der Pol, B.,, J. A. Williams,, N. J. Smith,, B. E. Batteiger,, A. P. Cullen,, H. Erdman,, T. Edens,, K. Davis,, H. Salim-Hammad,, V. W. Chou,, L. Scearce,, J. Blutman,, and W. J. Payne. 2002. Evaluation of the Digene Hybrid Capture II Assay with the Rapid Capture System for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae. J. Clin. Microbiol. 40: 3558– 3564.

107. Van Loock, M.,, D. Vanrompay,, B. Herrmann,, S. J. Vander,, G. Volckaert,, B. M. Goddeeris,, and K. D. Everett. 2003. Missing links in the divergence of Chlamydophila abortus from Chlamydophila psittaci. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 53: 761– 770.

108. Wadowsky, R. M.,, E. A. Castilla,, S. Laus,, A. Kozy,, R. W. Atchison,, L. A. Kingsley,, J. I. Ward,, and D. P. Greenberg. 2002. Evaluation of Chlamydia pneumoniae and Mycoplasma pneumoniae as etiologic agents of persistent cough in adolescents and adults. J. Clin. Microbiol. 40: 637– 640.

109. Walder, G.,, H. Hotzel,, C. Brezinka,, W. Gritsch,, R. Tauber,, R. Wurzner,, and F. Ploner. 2005. An unusual cause of sepsis during pregnancy: recognizing infection with Chlamydophila abortus. Obstet. Gynecol. 106: 1215– 1217.

110. Wang, S. 2000. The microimmunofluorescence test for Chlamydia pneumoniae infection: technique and interpretation. J. Infect. Dis. 181( Suppl. 3): S421– S425.

111. Wang, S. A.,, J. R. Papp,, W. E. Stamm,, R. W. Peeling,, D. H. Martin,, and K. K. Holmes. 2005. Evaluation of antimicrobial resistance and treatment failures for Chlamydia trachomatis: a meeting report. J. Infect. Dis. 191: 917– 923.

112. Weiss, S. M.,, P. M. Roblin,, C. A. Gaydos,, P. Cummings,, D. L. Patton,, N. Schulhoff,, J. Shani,, R. Frankel,, K. Penney,, T. C. Quinn,, M. R. Hammerschlag,, and J. Schachter. 1996. Failure to detect Chlamydia pneumoniae in coronary atheromas of patients undergoing atherectomy. J. Infect. Dis. 173: 957– 962.

113. Wellinghausen, N.,, E. Straube,, H. Freidank,, H. von Baum,, R. Marre,, and A. Essig. 2006. Low prevalence of Chlamydia pneumoniae in adults with community-acquired pneumonia. Int. J. Med. Microbiol. 296: 485– 491.

114. White, J. A. 2009. Manifestations and management of lymphogranuloma venereum. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 22: 57– 66.

115. Wiggins, R.,, S. Graf,, N. Low,, and P. J. Horner. 2009. Real-time quantitative PCR to determine chlamydial load in men and women in a community setting. J. Clin. Microbiol. 47: 1824– 1829.

116. Yin, Y. P.,, R. W. Peeling,, X. S. Chen,, K. L. Gong,, H. Zhou,, W. M. Gu,, H. P. Zheng,, Z. S. Wang,, G. Yong,, W. L. Cao,, M. Q. Shi,, W. H. Wei,, X. Q. Dai,, X. Gao,, Q. Chen,, and D. Mabey. 2006. Clinic-based evaluation of Clearview Chlamydia MF for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis in vaginal and cervical specimens from women at high risk in China. Sex. Transm. Infect. 82( Suppl. 5): v33– v37.

117. Zeidler, H.,, J. Kuipers,, and L. Kohler. 2004. Chlamydia-induced arthritis. Curr. Opin. Rheumatol. 16: 380– 392.

Tables

Chlamydiaceae*

/content/10.1128/9781555816728.chap60.tab60-1

Table 1

Ranges of sensitivity and specificity for diagnostic tests for C. trachomatis in urogenital specimens a

a Sensitivities and specificities are adapted from clinical trial data and are published in package inserts.

10.1128/9781555816728/tab60-1_thmb.gif

10.1128/9781555816728/tab60-1.gif

Table 1

Ranges of sensitivity and specificity for diagnostic tests for C. trachomatis in urogenital specimens a

a Sensitivities and specificities are adapted from clinical trial data and are published in package inserts.