Susceptibility Test Methods: Anaerobic Bacteria

Diane M. Citron; David W. Hecht

doi:10.1128/9781555816728.ch72

Chapter 72 : Susceptibility Test Methods: Anaerobic Bacteria

Authors: Diane M. Citron, David W. Hecht

Content Type: Reference

Publication Year: 2011

Category: Clinical Microbiology

Book DOI: 10.1128/9781555816728

Chapter DOI: 10.1128/9781555816728.ch72

MyBook is a cheap paperback edition of the original book and will be sold at uniform, low price.

Preview this chapter:

Susceptibility Test Methods: Anaerobic Bacteria, Page 1 of 2

< Previous page | Next page > /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555816728/9781555814632_Chap72-1.gif /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555816728/9781555814632_Chap72-2.gif

Abstract:

This chapter describes the currently available methodologies and their interpretation for susceptibility testing of anaerobes. At present, alternative testing methods include limited agar dilution, broth microdilution (for the B. fragilis group), and the Etest gradient strip method. Tigecycline, a glycylcycline derivative of minocycline, was recently introduced for treatment of intra-abdominal and skin and soft tissue infections. Several studies have found very good activity against anaerobes, with rare strains exhibiting tigecycline MICs of >8 µg/ml. Extensive taxonomic changes have occurred within the non-spore-forming gram-positive bacilli, especially with those previously in the genus Eubacterium. It is important to compare the drug-containing plates to the drug-free control plate when reading the tests, as different species of anaerobic bacteria can have very differently appearing spots, ranging from mucoid-opaque, as with the B. fragilis group, to gray-transparent, as with Bacteroides ureolyticus. Broth microdilution MIC determinations require criteria similar to those for the agar dilution procedure for reading end points: the concentration at which the most significant reduction in growth is observed and interpreted as the MIC. Current methodologies allow for accurate surveillance or individual isolate testing by most laboratories. Future studies comparing broth microdilution to the reference agar method and the anticipated development of an improved microdilution system will result in better standardization of the more-user-friendly method and, possibly, more widespread commercial availability.

Citation: Citron D, Hecht D. 2011. Susceptibility Test Methods: Anaerobic Bacteria, p 1204-1214. In Versalovic J, Carroll K, Funke G, Jorgensen J, Landry M, Warnock D (ed), Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 10th Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555816728.ch72

Key Concept Ranking

Bacteria: 0.65013826
beta-Lactamase Inhibitors: 0.6213705
Gram-Negative Bacilli: 0.6157195
Gram-Negative Cocci: 0.571737
Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing: 0.5418143
Disk Diffusion Test: 0.5170395

0.65013826

Highlighted Text: Show | Hide

Full text loading...

References

/content/book/10.1128/9781555816728.chap72

1. Aldridge, K. E. 2002. Ertapenem (MK-0826), a new carbapenem: comparative in vitro activity against clinically significant anaerobes. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 44: 181– 186.

2. Aldridge, K. E.,, D. Ashcraft,, and K. A. Bowman. 1997. Comparative in vitro activities of trovafloxacin (CP 99,219) and other antimicrobials against clinically significant anaerobes. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 41: 484– 487.

3. Aldridge, K. E.,, D. Ashcraft,, K. Cambre,, C. L. Pierson,, S. G. Jenkins,, and J. E. Rosenblatt. 2001. Multicenter survey of the changing in vitro antimicrobial susceptibilities of clinical isolates of Bacteroides fragilis group, Prevotella, Fusobacterium, Porphyromonas, and Peptostreptococcus species. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 45: 1238– 1243.

4. Aldridge, K. E.,, D. Ashcraft,, M. O’Brien,, and C. V. Sanders. 2003. Bacteremia due to Bacteroides fragilis group: distribution of species, beta-lactamase production, and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47: 148– 153.

5. Baron, E. J.,, D. M. Citron,, and H. M. Wexler. 1990. Son of anaerobic susceptibility testing—revisited. Clin. Microbiol. Newsl. 12: 69– 70.

6. Behra-Miellet, J.,, L. Calvet,, and L. Dubreuil. 2003. Activity of linezolid against anaerobic bacteria. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 22: 28– 34.

7. Behra-Miellet, J.,, L. Dubreuil,, and E. Jumas-Bilak. 2002. Antianaerobic activity of moxifloxacin compared with that of ofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, clindamycin, metronidazole and beta-lactams. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 20: 366– 374.

8. Betriu, C.,, E. Culebras,, M. Gomez,, I. Rodriguez-Avial,, and J. J. Picazo. 2005. In vitro activity of tigecycline against Bacteroides species. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 56: 349– 352.

9. Bogaerts, P.,, A. Engelhardt,, C. Berhin,, L. Bylund,, P. Ho,, A. Yusof,, and Y. Glupczynski. 2008. Evaluation of a new meropenem-EDTA double-ended Etest strip for the detection of the cfiA metallo-beta-lactamase gene in clinical isolates of Bacteroides fragilis. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 14: 973– 977.

10. Bolmstrom, A.,, A. Karlsson,, A. Engelhardt,, P. Ho,, P. J. Petersen,, P. A. Bradford,, and C. H. Jones. 2007. Validation and reproducibility assessment of tigecycline MIC determinations by Etest. J. Clin. Microbiol. 45: 2474– 2479.

11. Brazier, J. S.,, S. L. Stubbs,, and B. I. Duerden. 1999. Metronidazole resistance among clinical isolates belonging to the Bacteroides fragilis group: time to be concerned? J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 44: 580– 581.

12. Chaudhry, R.,, P. Mathur,, B. Dhawan,, and L. Kumar. 2001. Emergence of metronidazole-resistant Bacteroides fragilis, India. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 7: 485– 486.

13. Citron, D. M.,, and M. D. Appleman. 1997. Comparative in vitro activities of trovafloxacin (CP-99,219) against 221 aerobic and 217 anaerobic bacteria isolated from patients with intra-abdominal infections. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 41: 2312– 2316.

14. Citron, D. M.,, E. J. C. Goldstein,, C. V. Merriam,, B. A. Lipsky,, and M. A. Abramson. 2007. Bacteriology of moderate- to-severe diabetic foot infections and in vitro activity of antimicrobial agents. J. Clin. Microbiol. 45: 2819– 2828.

15. Citron, D. M.,, Y. Y. Kwok,, and M. D. Appleman. 2005. In vitro activity of oritavancin (LY333328), vancomycin, clindamycin, and metronidazole against Clostridium perfringens, Propionibacterium acnes, and anaerobic gram-positive cocci. Anaerobe 11: 93– 95.

16. Citron, D. M.,, C. V. Merriam,, K. L. Tyrrell,, Y. A. Warren,, H. Fernandez,, and E. J. C. Goldstein. 2003. In vitro activities of ramoplanin, teicoplanin, vancomycin, linezolid, bacitracin, and four other antimicrobials against intestinal anaerobic bacteria. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47: 2334– 2338.

17. Citron, D. M.,, M. I. Ostovari,, A. Karlsson,, and E. J. C. Goldstein. 1991. Evaluation of the E test for susceptibility testing of anaerobic bacteria. J. Clin. Microbiol. 29: 2197– 2203.

18.Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. 2009. Acceptable Anaerobe Control Strain Ranges for Minimal Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) Determination by Broth Microdilution and Agar Dilution Testing and Cumulative Antimicrobial Susceptibility Report for Bacteroides fragilis Group Bacteria. Informational Supplement. Approved Standard M11-S1. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, Wayne, PA.

19. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. 2007. Methods for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing of Anaerobic Bacteria,7th ed. Approved Standard M11-A7. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, Wayne, PA.

20. CLSI/NCCLS. 1993. Methods for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing of Anaerobic Bacteria, 3rd ed. Approved Standard M11-A3. National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards, Villanova, PA.

21. CLSI/NCCLS. 1997. Methods for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing of Anaerobic Bacteria, 4th ed. Approved Standard M11-A4. National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards, Wayne, PA.

22. CLSI/NCCLS. 2001. Methods for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing of Anaerobic Bacteria, 5th ed. Approved Standard M11-A5. National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards, Wayne, PA.

23. CLSI/NCCLS. 2004. Methods for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing of Anaerobic Bacteria. Approved Standard M11-A6. National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards, Wayne, PA.

24. Cormican, M. G.,, M. E. Erwin,, and R. N. Jones. 1996. False resistance to metronidazole by E-test among anaerobic bacteria investigations of contributing test conditions and medium quality. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 24: 117– 119.

25. Credito, K. L.,, and P. C. Appelbaum. 2004. Activity of OPT-80, a novel macrocycle, compared with those of eight other agents against selected anaerobic species. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48: 4430– 4434.

26. Credito, K. L.,, L. M. Ednie,, and P. C. Appelbaum. 2008. Comparative antianaerobic activities of doripenem determined by MIC and time-kill analysis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 52: 365– 373.

27. Curry, S. R.,, J. W. Marsh,, K. A. Shutt,, C. A. Muto,, M. M. O’Leary,, M. I. Saul,, A. W. Pasculle,, and L. H. Harrison. 2009. High frequency of rifampin resistance identified in an epidemic Clostridium difficile clone from a large teaching hospital. Clin. Infect. Dis. 48: 425– 429.

28. Dougherty, S. H. 1997. Antimicrobial culture and susceptibility testing has little value for routine management of secondary bacterial peritonitis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 25: S258– S261.

29. Edmiston, C. E.,, C. J. Krepel,, G. R. Seabrook,, L. R. Somberg,, A. Nakeeb,, R. A. Cambria,, and J. B. Towne. 2004. In vitro activities of moxifloxacin against 900 aerobic and anaerobic surgical isolates from patients with intraabdominal and diabetic foot infections. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48: 1012– 1016.

30. Edwards, R.,, C. V. Hawkyard,, M. T. Garvey,, and D. Greenwood. 1999. Prevalence and degree of expression of the carbapenemase gene (cfiA) among clinical isolates of Bacteroides fragilis in Nottingham, UK. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 43: 273– 276.

31. Ellis-Grosse, E. J.,, T. Babinchak,, N. Dartois,, G. Rose,, and E. Loh. 2005. The efficacy and safety of tigecycline in the treatment of skin and skin-structure infections: results of 2 double-blind phase 3 comparison studies with vancomycinaztreonam. Clin. Infect. Dis. 41( Suppl. 5): S341– S353.

32. Elsaghier, A. A.,, J. S. Brazier,, and E. A. James. 2003. Bacteraemia due to Bacteroides fragilis with reduced susceptibility to metronidazole. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 51: 1436– 1437.

33. Fernandez, C. L.,, L. Castello,, M. A. Di,, G. Greco,, M. C. Legaria,, M. Litterio,, S. C. Predari,, R. Rollet,, A. Rossetti,, G. Carloni,, M. I. Sarchi,, and H. Bianchini. 2007. Susceptibility trends of Bacteroides fragilis group isolates from Buenos Aires, Argentina. Rev. Argent. Microbiol. 39: 156– 160.

34. Finegold, S. M. 1997. Perspective on susceptibility testing of anaerobic bacteria. Clin. Infect. Dis. 25: S251– S253.

35. Finegold, S. M.,, Y. Song,, C. Liu,, D. W. Hecht,, P. Summanen,, E. Kononen,, and S. D. Allen. 2005. Clostridium clostridioforme: a mixture of three clinically important species. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 24: 319– 324.

36. Fomin, P.,, S. Koalov,, A. Cooper,, T. Babinchak,, N. Dartois,, N. De Vane,, N. Castaing,, and J. Tellado. 2008. The efficacy and safety of tigecycline for the treatment of complicated intra-abdominal infections—the European experience. J. Chemother. 20 (Suppl. 1): 12– 19.

37. Gal, M., and J. S. Brazier. 2004. Metronidazole resistance in Bacteroides spp. carrying nim genes and the selection of slow-growing metronidazole-resistant mutants. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 54: 109– 116.

38. Garcia, N.,, G. Gutierrez,, M. Lorenzo,, J. E. Garcia,, S. Piriz,, and A. Quesada. 2008. Genetic determinants for cfxA expression in Bacteroides strains isolated from human infections. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 62: 942– 947.

39. Glupczynski, Y.,, C. Berhin,, and H. Nizet. 2009. Antimicrobial susceptibility of anaerobic bacteria in Belgium as determined by E-test methodology. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 28: 261– 267.

40. Golan, Y.,, L. A. McDermott,, N. V. Jacobus,, E. J. Goldstein,, S. Finegold,, L. J. Harrell,, D. W. Hecht,, S. G. Jenkins,, C. Pierson,, R. Venezia,, J. Rihs,, P. Iannini,, S. L. Gorbach,, and D. R. Snydman. 2003. Emergence of fluoroquinolone resistance among Bacteroides species. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 52: 208– 213.

41. Goldstein, E. J.,, and D. M. Citron. 2009. Activity of a novel carbapenem, doripenem, against anaerobic pathogens. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 63: 447– 454.

42. Goldstein, E. J.,, D. M. Citron,, P. J. Goldman,, and R. J. Goldman. 2008. National hospital survey of anaerobic culture and susceptibility methods: III. Anaerobe 14: 68– 72.

43. Goldstein, E. J.,, D. M. Citron,, C. V. Merriam,, and M. A. Abramson. 2009. Infection after elective colorectal surgery: bacteriological analysis of failures in a randomized trial of cefotetan vs. ertapenem prophylaxis. Surg. Infect. 10: 111– 118.

44. Goldstein, E. J. C.,, D. M. Citron,, C. V. Merriam,, Y. Warren,, K. Tyrrell,, and H. T. Fernandez. 2003. In vitro activities of dalbavancin and nine comparator agents against anaerobic gram-positive species and corynebacteria. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47: 1968– 1971.

45. Goldstein, E. J. C.,, D. M. Citron,, C. V. Merriam,, Y. A. Warren,, K. L. Tyrrell,, and H. T. Fernandez. 2006. Comparative in vitro susceptibilities of 396 unusual anaerobic strains to tigecycline and eight other antimicrobial agents. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 50: 3507– 3513.

46. Goldstein, E. J. C.,, D. M. Citron,, C. V. Merriam,, Y. A. Warren,, K. L. Tyrrell,, and H. T. Fernandez. 2008. In vitro activities of doripenem and six comparator drugs against 423 aerobic and anaerobic bacterial isolates from infected diabetic foot wounds. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 52: 761– 766.

47. Goldstein, E. J. C.,, D. M. Citron,, C. V. Merriam,, Y. A. Warren,, K. L. Tyrrell,, and H. T. Fernandez. 2004. In vitro activities of the new semisynthetic glycopeptide telavancin (TD-6424), vancomycin, daptomycin, linezolid, and four comparator agents against anaerobic gram-positive species and Corynebacterium spp. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48: 2149– 2152.

48. Goldstein, E. J. C.,, D. M. Citron,, C. V. Merriam,, Y. A. Warren,, K. L. Tyrrell,, and H. T. Fernandez. 2003. In vitro activities of daptomycin, vancomycin, quinupristindalfopristin, linezolid, and five other antimicrobials against 307 gram-positive anaerobic and 31 Corynebacterium clinical isolates. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47: 337– 341.

49. Goldstein, E. J. C.,, D. M. Citron,, C. V. Merriam,, Y. A. Warren,, K. L. Tyrrell,, H. T. Fernandez,, and A. Bryskier. 2005. Comparative in vitro activities of XRP 2868, pristinamycin, quinupristin-dalfopristin, vancomycin, daptomycin, linezolid, clarithromycin, telithromycin, clindamycin, and ampicillin against anaerobic gram-positive species, actinomycetes, and lactobacilli. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49: 408– 413.

50. Goldstein, E. J. C.,, D. M. Citron,, V. A. Peraino,, and S. A. Cross. 2003. Desulfovibrio desulfuricans bacteremia and review of human Desulfovibrio infections. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41: 2752– 2754.

51. Goldstein, E. J. C.,, D. M. Citron,, M. C. Vreni,, Y. Warren,, and K. L. Tyrrell. 2000. Comparative in vitro activities of ertapenem (MK-0826) against 1,001 anaerobes isolated from human intra-abdominal infections. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 44: 2389– 2394.

52. Goldstein, E. J. C.,, D. M. Citron,, Y. A. Warren,, K. L. Tyrrell,, C. V. Merriam,, and H. Fernandez. 2006. In vitro activity of moxifloxacin against 923 anaerobes isolated from human intra-abdominal infections. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 50: 148– 155.

53. Goldstein, E. J.,, P. H. Summanen,, D. M. Citron,, M. H. Rosove,, and S. M. Finegold. 1995. Fatal sepsis due to a betalactamase- producing strain of Fusobacterium nucleatum subspecies polymorphum. Clin. Infect. Dis. 20: 797– 800.

54. Hecht, D. W. 2004. Prevalence of antibiotic resistance in anaerobic bacteria: worrisome developments. Clin. Infect. Dis. 39: 92– 97.

55. Hecht, D. W.,, M. A. Galang,, S. P. Sambol,, J. R. Osmolski,, S. Johnson,, and D. N. Gerding. 2007. In vitro activities of 15 antimicrobial agents against 110 toxigenic Clostridium difficile clinical isolates collected from 1983 to 2004. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 51: 2716– 2719.

56. Hecht, D. W.,, L. Lederer,, and J. R. Osmolski. 1995. Susceptibility results for the Bacteroides fragilis group: comparison of the broth microdilution and agar dilution methods. Clin. Infect. Dis. 20: S342– S345.

57. Hecht, D. W., and J. R. Osmolski. 2003. Activities of garenoxacin (BMS-284756) and other agents against anaerobic clinical isolates. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47: 910– 916.

58. Hecht, D. W.,, J. R. Osmolski,, and J. P. O’Keefe. 1993. Variation in the susceptibility of Bacteroides fragilis group isolates from six Chicago hospitals. Clin. Infect. Dis. 16: S357– S360.

59. Hedberg, M.,, and C. E. Nord. 2003. Antimicrobial susceptibility of Bacteroides fragilis group isolates in Europe. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 9: 475– 488.

60. Jacobus, N. V.,, L. A. McDermott,, R. Ruthazer,, and D. R. Snydman. 2004. In vitro activities of tigecycline against the Bacteroides fragilis group. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48: 1034– 1036.

61. Jamal, W.,, M. Shahin,, and V. O. Rotimi. 2010. Surveillance and trends of antimicrobial resistance among clinical isolates of anaerobes in Kuwait hospitals from 2002 to 2007. Anaerobe 16: 1– 5.

62. Jamal, W. Y.,, V. O. Rotimi,, J. S. Brazier,, M. Johny,, W. M. Wetieh,, and B. I. Duerden. 2004. Molecular characterization of nitroimidazole resistance in metronidazole-resistant Bacteroides species isolated from hospital patients in Kuwait. Med. Princ. Pract. 13: 147– 152.

63. Jousimies-Somer, H. R.,, P. Summanen,, D. M. Citron,, E. J. Baron,, H. M. Wexler,, and S. M. Finegold. 2002. Wadsworth- KTL Anaerobic Bacteriology Manual. Star Publishing, Belmont, CA.

64. Karlowsky, J. A.,, N. M. Laing,, and G. G. Zhanel. 2008. In vitro activity of OPT-80 tested against clinical isolates of toxin-producing Clostridium difficile. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 52: 4163– 4165.

65. Katsandri, A.,, A. Avlamis,, A. Pantazatou,, G. L. Petrikkos,, N. J. Legakis,, and J. Papaparaskevas. 2006. In vitro activities of tigecycline against recently isolated gramnegative anaerobic bacteria in Greece, including metronidazole- resistant strains. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 55: 231– 236.

66. Koeth, L. M.,, C. E. Good,, P. C. Appelbaum,, E. J. Goldstein,, A. C. Rodloff,, M. Claros,, and L. J. Dubreuil. 2004. Surveillance of susceptibility patterns in 1297 European and US anaerobic and capnophilic isolates to co-amoxiclav and five other antimicrobial agents. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 53: 1039– 1044.

67. Kommedal, O.,, T. W. Nystad,, B. Bolstad,, and A. Digranes. 2007. Antibiotic susceptibility of blood culture isolates of anaerobic bacteria at a Norwegian university hospital. APMIS 115: 956– 961.

68. Kononen, E.,, A. Bryk,, P. Niemi,, and A. Kanervo-Nordstrom. 2007. Antimicrobial susceptibilities of Peptostreptococcus anaerobius and the newly described Peptostreptococcus stomatis isolated from various human sources. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 51: 2205– 2207.

69. Lassmann, B.,, D. R. Gustafson,, C. M. Wood,, and J. E. Rosenblatt. 2007. Reemergence of anaerobic bacteremia. Clin. Infect. Dis. 44: 895– 900.

70. Liu, C. Y.,, Y. T. Huang,, C. H. Liao,, L. C. Yen,, H. Y. Lin,, and P. R. Hsueh. 2008. Increasing trends in antimicrobial resistance among clinically important anaerobes and Bacteroides fragilis isolates causing nosocomial infections: emerging resistance to carbapenems. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 52: 3161– 3168.

71. Lofmark, S.,, H. Fang,, M. Hedberg,, and C. Edlund. 2005. Inducible metronidazole resistance and nim genes in clinical Bacteroides fragilis group isolates. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49: 1253– 1256.

72. Marina, M.,, M. Ivanova,, and T. Kantardjiev. 2009. Antimicrobial susceptibility of anaerobic bacteria in Bulgaria. Anaerobe 15: 127– 132.

73. Molitoris, E.,, H. M. Wexler,, and S. M. Finegold. 1997. Sources and antimicrobial susceptibilities of Campylobacter gracilis and Sutterella wadsworthensis. Clin Infect. Dis. 25: S264– S265.

74. Morin, A. S.,, L. Poirel,, F. Mory,, R. Labia,, and P. Nordmann. 2002. Biochemical-genetic analysis and distribution of DES-1, an Ambler class A extended-spectrum betalactamase from Desulfovibrio desulfuricans. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 46: 3215– 3222.

75. Morio, F.,, H. Jean-Pierre,, L. Dubreuil,, E. Jumas-Bilak,, L. Calvet,, G. Mercier,, R. Devine,, and H. Marchandin. 2007. Antimicrobial susceptibilities and clinical sources of Dialister species. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 51: 4498– 4501.

76. Nguyen, M. H.,, V. L. Yu,, A. J. Morris,, L. McDermott,, M. W. Wagener,, L. Harrell,, and D. R. Snydman. 2000. Antimicrobial resistance and clinical outcome of Bacteroides bacteremia: findings of a multicenter prospective observational trial. Clin. Infect. Dis. 30: 870– 876.

77. Nyfors, S.,, E. Kononen,, R. Syrjanen,, E. Komulainen,, and H. Jousimies-Somer. 2003. Emergence of penicillin resistance among Fusobacterium nucleatum populations of commensal oral flora during early childhood. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 51: 107– 112.

78. O’Connor, J. R.,, M. A. Galang,, S. P. Sambol,, D. W. Hecht,, G. Vedantam,, D. N. Gerding,, and S. Johnson. 2008. Rifampin and rifaximin resistance in clinical isolates of Clostridium difficile. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 52: 2813– 2817.

79. Oh, H.,, N. El Amin,, T. Davies,, P. C. Appelbaum,, and C. Edlund. 2001. gyrA mutations associated with quinolone resistance in Bacteroides fragilis group strains. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 45: 1977– 1981.

80. Oprica, C.,, and C. E. Nord. 2005. European surveillance study on the antibiotic susceptibility of Propionibacterium acnes. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 11: 204– 213.

81. Papaparaskevas, J.,, A. Pantazatou,, A. Katsandri,, D. P. Houhoula,, N. J. Legakis,, A. Tsakris,, and A. Avlamis. 2008. Moxifloxacin resistance is prevalent among Bacteroides and Prevotella species in Greece. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 62: 137– 141.

82. Papaparaskevas, J.,, A. Pantazatou,, A. Katsandri,, N. J. Legakis,, and A. Avlamis. 2005. Multicentre survey of the in-vitro activity of seven antimicrobial agents, including ertapenem, against recently isolated gram-negative anaerobic bacteria in Greece. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 11: 820– 824.

83. Pelak, B. A.,, D. M. Citron,, M. Motyl,, E. J. Goldstein,, G. L. Woods,, and H. Teppler. 2002. Comparative in vitro activities of ertapenem against bacterial pathogens from patients with acute pelvic infection. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 50: 735– 741.

84. Piriz, S.,, S. Vadillo,, A. Quesada,, J. Criado,, R. Cerrato,, and J. Ayala. 2004. Relationship between penicillin-binding protein patterns and beta-lactamases in clinical isolates of Bacteroides fragilis with different susceptibility to beta-lactam antibiotics. J. Med. Microbiol. 53: 213– 221.

85. Podglajen, I.,, J. Breuil,, and E. Collatz. 1994. Insertion of a novel DNA sequence, 1S1186, upstream of the silent carbapenemase gene cfiA, promotes expression of carbapenem resistance in clinical isolates of Bacteroides fragilis. Mol. Microbiol. 12: 105– 114.

86. Reysset, G.,, A. Haggoud,, W. J. Su,, and M. Sebald. 1992. Genetic and molecular analysis of pIP417 and pIP419: Bacteroides plasmids encoding 5-nitroimidazole resistance. Plasmid 27: 181– 190.

87. Robert, R.,, A. Deraignac,, M. G. Le,, S. Ragot,, and G. Grollier. 2008. Prognostic factors and impact of antibiotherapy in 117 cases of anaerobic bacteraemia. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 27: 671– 678.

88. Roberts, M. C.,, J. Sutcliffe,, P. Courvalin,, L. B. Jensen,, J. Rood,, and H. Seppala. 1999. Nomenclature for macrolide and macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin B resistance determinants. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 43: 2823– 2830.

89. Roberts, S. A.,, K. P. Shore,, S. D. Paviour,, D. Holland,, and A. J. Morris. 2006. Antimicrobial susceptibility of anaerobic bacteria in New Zealand: 1999-2003. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 57: 992– 998.

90. Rosenblatt, J. E.,, and I. Brook. 1993. Clinical relevance of susceptibility testing of anaerobic bacteria. Clin. Infect. Dis. 16: S446– S448.

91. Rosenblatt, J. E.,, and D. R. Gustafson. 1995. Evaluation of the Etest for susceptibility testing of anaerobic bacteria. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 22: 279– 284.

92. Rotimi, V. O.,, E. M. Mokaddas,, W. Y. Jamal,, F. B. Khodakhast,, T. L. Verghese,, and S. C. Sanyal. 1999. Susceptibility of 497 clinical isolates of gram-negative anaerobes to trovafloxacin and eight other antibiotics. J. Chemother. 11: 349– 356.

93. Salminen, M. K.,, H. Rautelin,, S. Tynkkynen,, T. Poussa,, M. Saxelin,, V. Valtonen,, and A. Jarvinen. 2006. Lactobacillus bacteremia, species identification, and antimicrobial susceptibility of 85 blood isolates. Clin. Infect. Dis. 42: e35– e44.

94. Salonen, J. H.,, E. Eerola,, and O. Meurman. 1998. Clinical significance and outcome of anaerobic bacteremia. Clin. Infect. Dis. 26: 1413– 1417.

95. Salvana, E. M.,, and M. Frank. 2006. Lactobacillus endocarditis: case report and review of cases reported since 1992. J. Infect. 53: e5– e10.

96. Sandoe, J. A.,, J. K. Struthers,, and J. S. Brazier. 2001. Subdural empyema caused by Prevotella loescheii with reduced susceptibility to metronidazole. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 47: 366– 367.

97. Schapiro, J. M.,, R. Gupta,, E. Stefansson,, F. C. Fang,, and A. P. Limaye. 2004. Isolation of metronidazole-resistant Bacteroides fragilis carrying the nimA nitroreductase gene from a patient in Washington State. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42: 4127– 4129.

98. Singhal, R.,, R. Chaudhry,, and B. Dhawan. 2006. Anaerobic bacteraemia in a tertiary care hospital of North India. Indian J. Med. Microbiol. 24: 235– 236.

99. Smith, A. J.,, V. Hall,, B. Thakker,, and C. G. Gemmell. 2005. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing of Actinomyces species with 12 antimicrobial agents. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 56: 407– 409.

100. Snydman, D. R.,, N. V. Jacobus,, and L. A. McDermott. 2008. In vitro activities of doripenem, a new broad-spectrum carbapenem, against recently collected clinical anaerobic isolates, with emphasis on the Bacteroides fragilis group. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 52: 4492– 4496.

101. Snydman, D. R.,, N. V. Jacobus,, L. A. McDermott,, R. Ruthazer,, Y. Golan,, E. J. C. Goldstein,, S. M. Finegold,, L. J. Harrell,, D. W. Hecht,, S. G. Jenkins,, C. Pierson,, R. Venezia,, V. Yu,, J. Rihs,, and S. L. Gorbach. 2007. National survey on the susceptibility of Bacteroides fragilis group: report and analysis of trends in the United States from 1997 to 2004. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 51: 1649– 1655.

102. Snydman, D. R.,, N. V. Jacobus,, L. A. McDermott,, R. Ruthazer,, E. Goldstein,, S. Finegold,, L. Harrell,, D. W. Hecht,, S. Jenkins,, C. Pierson,, R. Venezia,, J. Rihs,, and S. L. Gorbach. 2002. In vitro activities of newer quinolones against Bacteroides group organisms. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 46: 3276– 3279.

103. Snydman, D. R.,, N. V. Jacobus,, L. A. McDermott,, R. Ruthazer,, E. J. Goldstein,, S. M. Finegold,, L. J. Harrell,, D. W. Hecht,, S. G. Jenkins,, C. Pierson,, R. Venezia,, J. Rihs,, and S. L. Gorbach. 2002. National survey on the susceptibility of Bacteroides fragilis group: report and analysis of trends for 1997-2000. Clin. Infect. Dis. 35: S126– S134.

104. Snydman, D. R.,, N. V. Jacobus,, L. A. McDermott,, S. Supran,, G. J. Cuchural, Jr.,, S. Finegold,, L. Harrell,, D. W. Hecht,, P. Iannini,, S. Jenkins,, C. Pierson,, J. Rihs,, and S. L. Gorbach. 1999. Multicenter study of in vitro susceptibility of the Bacteroides fragilis group, 1995 to 1996, with comparison of resistance trends from 1990 to 1996. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 43: 2417– 2422.

105. Soki, J.,, R. Edwards,, M. Hedberg,, H. Fang,, E. Nagy,, and C. E. Nord. 2006. Examination of cfiA-mediated carbapenem resistance in Bacteroides fragilis strains from a European antibiotic susceptibility survey. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 28: 497– 502.

106. Soki, J.,, E. Fodor,, D. W. Hecht,, R. Edwards,, V. O. Rotimi,, I. Kerekes,, E. Urban,, and E. Nagy. 2004. Molecular characterization of imipenem-resistant, cfiA-positive Bacteroides fragilis isolates from the USA, Hungary and Kuwait. J. Med. Microbiol. 53: 413– 419.

107. Soki, J.,, M. Gal,, J. S. Brazier,, V. O. Rotimi,, E. Urban,, E. Nagy,, and B. I. Duerden. 2006. Molecular investigation of genetic elements contributing to metronidazole resistance in Bacteroides strains. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 57: 212– 220.

108. Song, Y.,, C. Liu,, and S. M. Finegold. 2007. Development of a flow chart for identification of gram-positive anaerobic cocci in the clinical laboratory. J. Clin. Microbiol. 45: 512– 516.

109. Summanen, P.,, H. M. Wexler,, and S. M. Finegold. 1992. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing of Bilophila wadsworthia by using triphenyltetrazolium chloride to facilitate endpoint determination. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 36: 1658– 1664.

110. Tanaka, K.,, C. Kawamura,, K. Fukui,, H. Kato,, N. Kato,, T. Nakamura,, K. Watanabe,, and K. Ueno. 1999. Antimicrobial susceptibility and b-lactamase production of Prevotella spp. and Porphyromonas spp. Anaerobe 5: 461– 463.

111. Teng, L. J.,, P. R. Hsueh,, J. C. Tsai,, S. J. Liaw,, S. W. Ho,, and K. T. Luh. 2002. High incidence of cefoxitin and clindamycin resistance among anaerobes in Taiwan. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 46: 2908– 2913.

112. Theron, M. M.,, M. N. Janse van Rensburg,, and L. J. Chalkley. 2004. Nitroimidazole resistance genes (nimB) in anaerobic gram-positive cocci (previously Peptostreptococcus spp.). J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 54: 240– 242.

113. Tyrrell, K. L.,, D. M. Citron,, Y. A. Warren,, H. T. Fernandez,, C. V. Merriam,, and E. J. C. Goldstein. 2006. In vitro activities of daptomycin, vancomycin, and penicillin against Clostridium difficile, C. perfringens, Finegoldia magna, and Propionibacterium acnes. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 50: 2728– 2731.

114. Wareham, D. W.,, M. Wilks,, D. Ahmed,, J. S. Brazier,, and M. Millar. 2005. Anaerobic sepsis due to multidrug-resistant Bacteroides fragilis: microbiological cure and clinical response with linezolid therapy. Clin. Infect. Dis. 40: e67– e68.

115. Wexler, H. M. 2007. Bacteroides: the good, the bad, and the nitty-gritty. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 20: 593– 621.

116. Wexler, H. M.,, A. E. Engel,, D. Glass,, and C. Li. 2005. In vitro activities of doripenem and comparator agents against 364 anaerobic clinical isolates. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49: 4413– 4417.

117. Wexler, H. M.,, D. Molitoris,, S. St. John,, A. Vu,, E. K. Read,, and S. M. Finegold. 2002. In vitro activities of faropenem against 579 strains of anaerobic bacteria. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 46: 3669– 3675.

118. Whittle, G.,, N. B. Shoemaker,, and A. A. Salyers. 2002. The role of Bacteroides conjugative transposons in the dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 59: 2044– 2054.

119. Wilson, J. R.,, and A. P. Limaye. 2004. Risk factors for mortality in patients with anaerobic bacteremia. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 23: 310– 316.

120. Wilson, S. E.,, and J. Huh. 1997. In defense of routine antimicrobial susceptibility testing of operative site flora in patients with peritonitis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 25: S254– S257.

121. Wybo, I.,, D. Pierard,, I. Verschraegen,, M. Reynders,, K. Vandoorslaer,, G. Claeys,, M. Delmee,, Y. Glupczynski,, B. Gordts,, M. Ieven,, P. Melin,, M. Struelens,, J. Verhaegen,, and S. Lauwers. 2007. Third Belgian multicentre survey of antibiotic susceptibility of anaerobic bacteria. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 59: 132– 139.

122. Zahar, J. R.,, H. Farhat,, E. Chachaty,, P. Meshaka,, S. Antoun,, and G. Nitenberg. 2005. Incidence and clinical significance of anaerobic bacteraemia in cancer patients: a 6-year retrospective study. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 11: 724– 729.

Tables

Susceptibility Test Methods: Anaerobic Bacteria

[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555816728.chap72-1,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555816728.chap72-1,properties={foaf_givenname=Diane M., foaf_name=Diane M. Citron, foaf_surname=Citron}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555816728.chap72-2,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555816728.chap72-2,properties={foaf_givenname=David W., foaf_name=David W. Hecht, foaf_surname=Hecht}]]

/content/10.1128/9781555816728.chap72.tab72-1

TABLE 1

Indications for susceptibility testing of anaerobic bacteria

a These are examples only and are not intended as all-inclusive. See the text for specific recommendations.

10.1128/9781555816728/tab72-1_thmb.gif

10.1128/9781555816728/tab72-1.gif

TABLE 1

Indications for susceptibility testing of anaerobic bacteria

a These are examples only and are not intended as all-inclusive. See the text for specific recommendations.

/content/10.1128/9781555816728.chap72.tab72-2

TABLE 2

Methods for susceptibility testing of anaerobic bacteria

a Media are commercially available.

b Frozen or lyophilized panels are available from Trek Diagnostic Systems, Inc., (Cleveland, OH).

10.1128/9781555816728/tab72-2_thmb.gif

10.1128/9781555816728/tab72-2.gif

TABLE 2

Methods for susceptibility testing of anaerobic bacteria

a Media are commercially available.

b Frozen or lyophilized panels are available from Trek Diagnostic Systems, Inc., (Cleveland, OH).

/content/10.1128/9781555816728.chap72.tab72-3

TABLE 3

Interpretive categories for MICs for anaerobic bacteria a

a Adapted from reference 19 with permission of the publisher.

b >Members of the B. fragilis group are presumed to be resistant. Other gramnegative anaerobes may be screened for β-lactamase activity by use of a chromogenic cephalosporins test if penicillin therapy is contemplated. Higher blood levels are achievable; infection with non-β-lactamase-producing organisms with higher MICs might be treatable.

10.1128/9781555816728/tab72-3_thmb.gif

10.1128/9781555816728/tab72-3.gif

TABLE 3

Interpretive categories for MICs for anaerobic bacteria a

a Adapted from reference 19 with permission of the publisher.