1887

Chapter 17 : Genetic Manipulation of

Authors: Marite Bradshaw, Eric A. Johnson
Content Type: Reference
Publication Year: 2010

Category: Applied and Industrial Microbiology

MyBook is a cheap paperback edition of the original book and will be sold at uniform, low price.

Preview this chapter:
Preview Magnify
Zoom in
Zoomout

Genetic Manipulation of , Page 1 of 2

| /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555816827/9781555815127_Chap17-1.gif /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555816827/9781555815127_Chap17-2.gif

Abstract:

The genus is classified in the family of the phylum of . The genetic manipulation of clostridia is still in an early stage of development, but significant advances have been made in recent years, and this chapter emphasizes newly developed genetic methods and strategies. Certain physiological properties of clostridia are integral for genetic manipulation and gene expression. Clostridia are classified as proteolytic or saccharolytic depending on their preference for energy-yielding substrates. Conjugal transfer between the same and different species of certainly occurs in the environment and in the gastrointestinal tracts of mammals, but it is not used for routine genetic manipulation. This chapter describes the replicons, selective markers, and reporter genes most frequently used for construction of clostridial shuttle vectors. It also describes the latest developments in the field. The most comprehensive and detailed transcriptional analysis including the life cycle of has been performed in the E. T. Papoutsakis laboratory. This study described major cellular regulatory systems; sigma and sporulation factors, including activity assays for major sporulation factors of the canonical sets of genes from their regulons; assessment of expression intensities; and identification of putative histidine kinases that may phosphorylate Spo0A. The availability of genomic sequences provides insights into population genetics and evolution of . Ideally, the development of further genetic tools will foster fruitful collaborations within the clostridial community to understand this complex and difficult organism.

Citation: Bradshaw M, Johnson E. 2010. Genetic Manipulation of , p 238-261. In Baltz R, Demain A, Davies J, Bull A, Junker B, Katz L, Lynd L, Masurekar P, Reeves C, Zhao H (ed), Manual of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555816827.ch17

Key Concept Ranking

Two-Component Signal Transduction Systems
0.42118666
0.42118666
Highlighted Text: Show | Hide
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

Figures

Genetic Manipulation of Clostridium
[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555816827.ch17-1,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555816827.ch17-1,properties={foaf_givenname=Marite, foaf_name=Marite Bradshaw, foaf_surname=Bradshaw}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555816827.ch17-2,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555816827.ch17-2,properties={foaf_givenname=Eric A., foaf_name=Eric A. Johnson, foaf_surname=Johnson}]]
Citation: Bradshaw M, Johnson E. 2010. Genetic Manipulation of , p 238-261. In Baltz R, Demain A, Davies J, Bull A, Junker B, Katz L, Lynd L, Masurekar P, Reeves C, Zhao H (ed), Manual of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555816827.ch17
/content/10.1128/9781555816827.ch17.ch17fig01
FIGURE 1
Characteristic spindle morphology of and presence of endospores. The photograph shows a phase-contrast visual micrograph (750×) of a culture of type A.
10.1128/9781555816827/f0239-01_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555816827/f0239-01.gif
Image of FIGURE 1
FIGURE 1

Characteristic spindle morphology of and presence of endospores. The photograph shows a phase-contrast visual micrograph (750×) of a culture of type A.

Citation: Bradshaw M, Johnson E. 2010. Genetic Manipulation of , p 238-261. In Baltz R, Demain A, Davies J, Bull A, Junker B, Katz L, Lynd L, Masurekar P, Reeves C, Zhao H (ed), Manual of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555816827.ch17
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555816827.ch17.ch17fig02
FIGURE 2
(A) Schematic presentation of pMTL80000-series modular plasmids, showing most available modules. (B) The MCS module. TT1, transcriptional terminator from downstream of the CD0164 ORF of 630; TT2, transcriptional terminator from the gene of . (Reprinted from reference with permission of the publisher.)
10.1128/9781555816827/f0245-01_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555816827/f0245-01.gif
Image of FIGURE 2
FIGURE 2

(A) Schematic presentation of pMTL80000-series modular plasmids, showing most available modules. (B) The MCS module. TT1, transcriptional terminator from downstream of the CD0164 ORF of 630; TT2, transcriptional terminator from the gene of . (Reprinted from reference with permission of the publisher.)

Citation: Bradshaw M, Johnson E. 2010. Genetic Manipulation of , p 238-261. In Baltz R, Demain A, Davies J, Bull A, Junker B, Katz L, Lynd L, Masurekar P, Reeves C, Zhao H (ed), Manual of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555816827.ch17
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint

References

/content/book/10.1128/9781555816827.ch17
1. Abraham, L. J.,, D. I. Berryman, and, J. I. Rood. 1988. Hybridization analysis of the class P tetracycline resistance determinant from the Clostridium perfringens R-plasmid, pCW3. Plasmid 19: 113– 120.
2. Abraham, L. J., and, J. I. Rood. 1985. Molecular analysis of transferable tetracycline resistance plasmids from Clostridium perfringens. J. Bacteriol. 161: 636– 640.
3. Ackermann, H. W. 1974. Classification of Bacillus and Clostridium bacteriophages. Pathol. Biol. 22: 909– 917.
4. Adams, V.,, D. Lyras,, K. A. Farrow, and, J. I. Rood. 2002. The clostridial mobilisable transposons. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 59: 2033– 2043.
5. Al-Khaldi, S. F,, K. M. Myers,, A. Rasooly, and, V. Chizhikov. 2004. Genotyping of Clostridium perfringens toxins using multiple oligonucleotide microarray hybridization. Mol. Cell. Probes 18: 359– 367.
6. Andreesen, J. R.,, H. Bahl, and, G. Gottschalk. 1989. Introduction to the physiology and biochemistry of the genus Clostridium, p. 27- 62. In N. P. Minton and, D. J. Clarke (ed.), Clostridia. Plenum Press, New York, NY.
7. Awad, M. M., and, J. I. Rood. 1997. Isolation of α-toxin, θ-toxin and κ-toxin mutants of Clostridium perfringens by Tn 916 mutagenesis. Microb. Pathog. 22: 275– 284.
8. Band, P. A.,, S. Blais,, T. A. Neubert,, T. J. Cardozo, and, K. Ichtchenko. Recombinant derivatives of botulinum neurotoxin A engineered for trafficking studies and neuro-nal delivery. Protein Expr. Purif., in press.
9. Bannam, T. L.,, W. L. Teng,, D. Bulach,, D. Lyras, and, J. I. Rood. 2006. Functional identification of conjugation and replication regions of the tetracycline resistance plasmid pCW3 from Clostridium perfringens. J. Bacteriol. 188: 4942– 4951.
10. Berryman, D. I., and, J. I. Rood. 1995. The closely related ermB-ermAM genes from Clostridium perfringens, Enterococcus faecalis (pAM(31), and Streptococcus agalactiae (pIP501) are flanked by variants of a directly repeated sequence. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 39: 1830– 1834.
11. Bettegowda, C,, X. Huang,, J. Lin,, I. Cheong,, M. Kohli,, S. A. Szabo,, X. Zhang,, L. A. Diaz, Jr.,, V. E. Velculescu,, G. Parmigiani,, K. W. Kinzler,, B. Vogelstein, and, S. Zhou. 2006. The genome and transcriptomes of the anti-tumor agent Clostridium novyi-NT. Nat. Biotechnol. 24: 1573– 1580.
12. Birrer, G. A.,, W. R. Chesbro, and, R. M. Zsigray. 1994. Electro-transformation of Clostridium beijerinckii NRRL B-592 with shuttle plasmid pHR106 and recombinant derivatives. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 41: 32– 38.
13. Bleck, T. P. 1991. Tetanus: pathophysiology, management, and prophylaxis. Dis. Mon. 37: 547– 603.
14. Bouvet, P. J., and, M. R. Popoff. 2008. Genetic relatedness of Clostridium difficile isolates from various origins determined by triple-locus sequence analysis based on toxin regulatory genes tcdC, tcdR, and cdtR. J. Clin. Microbiol. 46: 3703– 3713.
15. Braun, V.,, M. Mehlig,, M. Moos,, M. Rupnik,, B. Kalt,, D. E. Mahony, and, C. von Eichel-Streiber. 2000. A chimeric ribozyme in Clostridium difficile combines features of group I introns and insertion elements. Mol. Microbiol. 36: 1447– 1459.
16. Brefort, G.,, M. Magot,, H. Ionesco, and, M. Sebald. 1977. Characterization and transferability of Clostridium perfringens plasmids. Plasmid 1: 52– 66.
17. Brehm, J. K.,, A. Pennock,, H. M. Bullman,, M. Young,, J. D. Oultram, and, N. P. Minton. 1992. Physical characterization of the replication origin of the cryptic plasmid pCB101 isolated from Clostridium butyricum NCIB 7423. Plasmid 28: 1– 13.
18. Brüggemann, H.,, S. Baumer,, W. F. Fricke,, A. Wiezer,, H. Liesegang,, I. Decker,, C. Herzberg,, R. Martinez-Arias,, R. Merkl,, A. Henne, and, G. Gottschalk. 2003. The genome sequence of Clostridium tetani, the causative agent of tetanus disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100: 1316– 1321.
19. Brynestad, S., and, P. E. Granum. 1999. Evidence that Tn 5565, which includes the enterotoxin gene in Clostridium perfringens, can have a circular form which may be a transposition intermediate. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 170: 281– 286.
20. Bullifent, H. L.,, A. Moir, and, R. W. Titball. 1995. The construction of a reporter system and use for the investigation of Clostridium perfringens gene expression. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 131: 99– 105.
21. Burrus, V.,, G. Pavlovic,, B. Decaris, and, G. Guedon. 2002. Conjugative transposons: the tip of the iceberg. Mol. Microbiol. 46: 601– 610.
22. Carter, A. T.,, C. J. Paul,, D. R. Mason,, S. M. Twine,, M. J. Alston,, S. M. Logan,, J. W. Austin, and, M. W. Peck. 2009. Independent evolution of neurotoxin and flagellar genetic loci in proteolytic Clostridium botulinum. BMC Genomics 10: 115.
23. Chen, Y.,, L. Caruso,, B. Mcclane,, D. Fisher, and, P. Gupta. 2007. Disruption of a toxin gene by introduction of a foreign gene into the chromosome of Clostridium perfringens using targetron-induced mutagenesis. Plasmid 58: 182– 189.
24. Chen, Y.,, B. A. Mcclane,, D. J. Fisher,, J. I. Rood, and, P. Gupta. 2005. Construction of an alpha toxin gene knockout mutant of Clostridium perfringens type A by use of a mobile group II intron. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71: 7542– 7547.
25. Cheung, J. K.,, M. M. Awad,, S. McGowan, and, J. I. Rood. 2009. Functional analysis of the VirSR phosphore-lay from Clostridium perfringens. PLoS One 4: e5849.
26. Collins, M. D.,, P. A. Lawson,, A. Willems,, J. J. Cordoba,, J. Fernandez-Garayzabal,, P. Garcia,, J. Cai,, H. Hippe, and, J. A. Farrow. 1994. The phylogeny of the genus Clostridium: proposal of five new genera and eleven new species combinations. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 44: 812– 826.
27. Cornillot, E.,, R. V. Nair,, E. T. Papoutsakis, and, P. Soucaille. 1997. The genes for butanol and acetone formation in Clostridium acetobutylicum ATCC 824 reside on a large plasmid whose loss leads to degeneration of the strain. J. Bacteriol. 179: 5442– 5447.
28. Cornillot, E., and, P. Soucaille. 1996. Solvent-forming genes in clostridia. Nature 380: 489.
29. Dahlsten, E.,, H. Korkeala,, P. Somervuo, and, M. Lindstrom. 2008. PCR assay for differentiating between Group I (proteolytic) and Group II (nonproteolytic) strains of Clostridium botulinum. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 124: 108– 111.
30. Dang, L. H.,, C. Bettegowda,, D. L. Huso,, K. W. Kinzler, and, B. Vogelstein. 2001. Combination bacteriolytic therapy for the treatment of experimental tumors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98: 15155– 15160.
31. Davis, I. J.,, G. Carter,, M. Young, and, N. P. Minton. 2005. Gene cloning in clostridia, p. 37– 52. In P. Dürre (ed.), Handbook on Clostridia. Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL.
32. Davis, T. O.,, I. Henderson,, J. K. Brehm, and, N. P. Minton. 2000. Development of a transformation and gene reporter system for group II, non-proteolytic Clostridium botulinum type B strains. J. Mol. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2: 59– 69.
33. Deguchi, A.,, K. Miyamoto,, T. Kuwahara,, Y. Miki,, I. Kaneko,, J. Li,, B. A. Mcclane, and, S. Akimoto. 2009. Genetic characterization of type A enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens strains. PLoS One 4: e5598.
34. Desai, R. P., and, E. T. Papoutsakis. 1999. Antisense RNA strategies for metabolic engineering of Clostridium acetobutylicum. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65: 936– 945.
35. De Vos, P.,, G. Garrity,, D. Jones,, N. R. Krief,, W. Ludwig,, F. A. Rainey,, K.-H. Schleifer, and, W. B. Whitman (ed.). 2009. Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology, 2nd ed., vol. 3. The Firmicutes. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY.
36. Dineen, S. S.,, M. Bradshaw, and, E. A. Johnson. 2003. Neurotoxin gene clusters in Clostridium botulinum type A strains: sequence comparison and evolutionary implications. Curr. Microbiol. 46: 345– 352.
37. Domingo, M. C.,, A. Huletsky,, A. Bernal,, R. Giroux,, D. K. Boudreau,, F. J. Picard, and, M. G. Bergeron. 2005. Characterization of a Tn 5382-like transposon containing the vanB2 gene cluster in a Clostridium strain isolated from human faeces. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 55: 466– 474.
38. Dowell, V. R., and, G. L. Lombard. 1977. Media for isolation, characterization and identification of obligately anaerobic bacteria. US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, Atlanta, GA.
39. Dürre, P. 2008. Fermentative butanol production: bulk chemical and biofuel. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1125: 353– 362.
40. Dürre, P. 2001. From Pandora’s box to cornucopia, p. 1– 13. In H. Bahl and, P. Dürre (ed.), Clostridia. Biotechnology and Medical Applications. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Germany.
41. Dürre, P. (ed.). 2005. Handbook on Clostridia. Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL.
42. Dürre, P. 2005. Formation of solvents in clostridia, p. 671– 693. In P. Dürre (ed.), Handbook on Clostridia. Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL.
43. Dworkin, M. (ed. in chief). 2006. The Prokaryotes, 3rd ed. Springer, New York, NY.
44. Eklund, M. W.,, F. T. Pousky, and, W. H. Habig. 1989. Bacteriophages and plasmids in Clostridium botulinum and Clostridium tetani and their relationship to production of toxins, p. 25– 51. In L. L. Simpson (ed.), Botulinum Neuro-toxin and Tetanus Toxin. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
45. Eklund, M. W.,, F. T. Poysky,, L. M. Mseitif, and, M. S. Strom. 1988. Evidence for plasmid-mediated toxin and bacteriocin production in Clostridium botulinum type G. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 54: 1405– 1408.
46. Emerson, J. E.,, R. A. Stabler,, B. W. Wren, and, N. F. Fairweather. 2008. Microarray analysis of the transcriptional responses of Clostridium difficile to environmental and antibiotic stress. J. Med. Microbiol. 57: 757– 764.
47. Fach, P.,, P. Micheau,, C. Mazuet,, S. Perelle, and, M. Popoff. 2009. Development of real-time PCR tests for detecting botulinum neurotoxins A, B, E, F producing Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium baratii and Clostridium butyricum. J. Appl. Microbiol. 107: 465– 473.
48. Fang, A.,, D. F. Gerson, and, A. L. Demain. 2006. Menstrum for culture preservation and medium for seed preparation in a tetanus toxin production process containing no animal or dairy products. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 43: 360– 363.
49. Fang, A.,, D. F. Gerson, and, A. L. Demain. 2009. Production of Clostridium difficile toxin in a medium totally free of both animal and dairy proteins or digests. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 106: 13225– 13229.
50. Feustel, L.,, S. Nakotte, and, P. Dürre. 2004. Characterization and development of two reporter gene systems for Clostridium acetobutylicum. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70: 798– 803.
51. Finn, C. W., Jr.,, R. P. Silver,, W. H. Habig,, M. C. Hardegree,, G. Zon, and, C. F. Garon. 1984. The structural gene for tetanus neurotoxin is on a plasmid. Science 224: 881– 884.
52. Franciosa, G.,, A. Maugliani,, C. Scalfaro, and, P. Aureli. 2009. Evidence that plasmid-borne botulinum neurotoxin type B genes are widespread among Clostridium botulinum serotype B strains. PLoS ONE 4: e4829.
53. Garnier, T., and, S. T. Cole. 1988. Complete nucleotide sequence and genetic organization of the bacteriocino-genic plasmid, pIP404, from Clostridium perfringens. Plas-mid 19: 134– 150.
54. Garnier, T., and, S. T. Cole. 1988. Identification and molecular genetic analysis of replication functions of the bacteriocinogenic plasmid pIP404 from Clostridium perfringens. Plasmid 19: 151– 160.
55. Girbal, L.,, I. Mortier-Barriere,, F. Raynaud,, C. Rouanet,, C. Croux, and, P. Soucaille. 2003. Development of a sensitive gene expression reporter system and an inducible promoter-repressor system for Clostridium acetobutylicum. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69: 4985– 4988.
56. Girbal, L.,, G. von Abendroth,, M. Winkler,, P. M. Benton,, I. Meynial-salles,, C. Croux,, J. W. Peters,, T. Happe, and, P. Soucaille. 2005. Homologous and het-erologous overexpression in Clostridium acetobutylicum and characterization of purified clostridial and algal Fe-only hydrogenases with high specific activities. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71: 2777– 2781.
57. Goryshin, I. Y., and, W. S. Reznikoff. 1998. Tn 5 in vitro transposition. J. Biol. Chem. 273: 7367– 7374.
58. Gottschalk, G. 1989. Bacterial Metabolism, 2nd ed. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY.
59. Govind, R.,, J. A. Fralick, and, R. D. Rolfe. 2006. Genomic organization and molecular characterization of Clostridium difficile bacteriophage PhiCD119. J. Bacteriol. 188: 2568– 2577.
60. Hashsham, S. A.,, L. M. Wick,, J. M. Rouillard,, E. Gulari, and, J. M. Tiedje. 2004. Potential of DNA microarrays for developing parallel detection tools (PDTs) for microorganisms relevant to biodefense and related research needs. Biosens. Bioelectron. 20: 668– 683.
61. Hasselmayer, O.,, V. Braun,, C. Nitsche,, M. Moos,, M. Rupnik, and, C. von Eichel-streiber. 2004. Clostrid-ium difficile IStron Cd ISt1: discovery of a variant encoding two complete transposase-like proteins. J. Bacteriol. 186: 2508– 2510.
62. Hasselmayer, O.,, C. Nitsche,, V. Braun, and, C. von Eichel-streiber. 2004. The IStron Cd ISt1 of Clostridium difficile: molecular symbiosis of a group I intron and an insertion element. Anaerobe 10: 85– 92.
63. Hatheway, C. L., and, E. A. Johnson. 1998. Clostridium: the spore-bearing anaerobes, p. 731– 782. In L. Collier,, A. Balows, and, M. Sussman (ed.), Topley and Wilson’s Microbiology and Microbial Infections, 9th ed., vol. 2. Systematic Bacteriology. Arnold, London, United Kingdom.
64. Heap, J. T.,, S. T. Cartman,, O. J. Pennington,, C. M. Cooksley,, J. C. Scott,, B. Blount,, D. A. Burns, and, N. P. Minton. 2009. Development of genetic knock-out systems for clostridia, p. 179– 198. In H. Brüggemann and, G. Gottschalk (ed.), Clostridia. Molecular Biology in the Post-Genomic Era. Caister Academic Press, Norfolk, United Kingdom.
65. Heap, J. T.,, O. J. Pennington,, S. T. Cartman,, G. P. Carter, and, N. P. Minton. 2007. The ClosTron: a universal gene knock-out system for the genus Clostridium. J. Microbiol. Methods 70: 452– 464.
66. Heap, J. T.,, O. J. Pennington,, S. T. Cartman, and, N. P. Minton. 2009. A modular system for Clostridium shuttle plasmids. J. Microbiol. Methods 78: 79– 85.
67. Holdeman, L. V.,, E. P. Cato, and, W. E. C. Moore. 1977. Anaerobe Laboratory Manual, 4th ed. Department of Anaerobic Microbiology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA.
68. Hong, B. X.,, L. F. Jiang,, Y. S. Hu,, D. Y. Fang, and, H. Y. Guo. 2004. Application of oligonucleotide array technology for the rapid detection of pathogenic bacteria of foodborne infections. J. Microbiol. Methods 58: 403– 411.
69. Hughes, M. L.,, R. Poon,, V. Adams,, S. Sayeed,, J. Saputo,, F. A. Uzal,, B. A. Mcclane, and, J. I. Rood. 2007. Epsilon-toxin plasmids of Clostridium perfringens type D are conjugative. J. Bacteriol. 189: 7531– 7538.
70. Hussein, H. M.,, A. L. Cookson, and, G. T. Attwood. 2008. A new growth medium for rapid selection and purification of Clostridium proteoclasticum transposon mutants. J. Microbiol. Methods 73: 203– 207.
71. Hwang, H. J.,, J. C. Lee,, Y. Yamamoto,, M. R. Sarker,, T. Tsuchiya, and, K. Oguma. 2007. Identification of structural genes for Clostridium botulinum type C neurotoxin-convert-ing phage particles. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 270: 82– 89.
72. Jacobson, M. J.,, G. Lin,, T. S. Whittam, and, E. A. Johnson. 2008. Phylogenetic analysis of Clostridium botu-linum type A by multi-locus sequence typing. Microbiology 154: 2408– 2415.
73. Jankovic, J.,, A. Albanes,, M. Souhair Atassi,, J. O. Dolly,, M. Hallett, and, N. H. Mayer. 2009. Botulinum Toxin: Therapeutic Clinical Practice & Science. Saunders Elsevier, Philadelphia, PA.
74. Janvilisri, T.,, J. Scaria,, A. D. Thompson,, A. Nicholson,, B. M. Limbago,, L. G. Arroyo,, J. G. Songer,, Y. T. Grohn, and, Y. F. Chang. 2009. Microarray identification of Clostridium difficile core components and divergent regions associated with host origin. J. Bacteriol. 191: 3881– 3891.
75. Johanesen, P. A.,, D. Lyras,, T. L. Bannam, and, J. I. Rood. 2001. Transcriptional analysis of the tet(P) operon from Clostridium perfringens. J. Bacteriol. 183: 7110– 7119.
76. Johnson, E. A. 1999. Anaerobic fermentations, p. 139– 150. In A. L. Demain and, J. E. Davies (ed.), Manual of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, 2nd ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
77. Johnson, E. A. 2009. Clostridia, p. 87– 93. In J. Lederberg (ed.), Encyclopedia of Microbiology. Elsevier, Oxford, United Kingdom.
78. Johnson, E. A. 1997. Extrachromosomal virulence determinants in the clostridia, p. 35– 48. In J. I. Rood,, B. A. McClane,, J. G. Songer, and, R. W. Titball (ed.), The Clostridia: Molecular Genetics and Pathogenesis. Academic Press, London, United Kingdom.
79. Johnson, E. A., and, M. Bradshaw. 2001. Clostridium botulinum and its neurotoxins: a metabolic and cellular perspective. Toxicon 39: 1703– 1722.
80. Johnson, E. A.,, A. Madia, and, A. L. Demain. 1981. Chemically defined minimal medium for growth of the anaerobic cellulolytic thermophile Clostridium thermocel-lum. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 41: 1060– 1062.
81. Johnson, E. A.,, P. Summanen, and, S. M. Finegold. 2006. Clostridium. Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 9th ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
82. Jones, D. T. 2001. Applied acetone-butanol fermentation, p. 125– 168. In H. Bahl and, P. Dürre (ed.), Clostridia. Biotechnology and Medical Applications. Wiley-VCH, Wein-heim, Germany.
83. Jones, D. T. 2005. Bacteriophages in Clostridium, p. 697– 717. In P. Dürre (ed.), Handbook on Clostridia. Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL.
84. Jones, D. T.,, M. Shirley,, X. Wu, and, S. Keis. 2000. Bacteriophage infections in the industrial acetone butanol (AB) fermentation process. J. Mol. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2: 21– 26.
85. Jones, S. W.,, C. J. Paredes,, B. Tracy,, N. Cheng,, R. Sillers,, R. S. Senger, and, E. T. Papoutsakis. 2008. The transcriptional program underlying the physiology of clostridial sporulation. Genome Biol. 9: R114.
86. Jost, B. H.,, H. T. Trinh, and, J. G. Songer. 2006. Clonal relationships among Clostridium perfringens of porcine origin as determined by multilocus sequence typing. Vet. Microbiol. 116: 158– 165.
87. Kaji, M.,, O. Matsushita,, E. Tamai,, S. Miyata,, Y. Taniguchi,, S. Shimamoto,, S. Katayama,, S. Morita, and, A. Okabe. 2003. A novel type of DNA curvature present in a Clostridium perfringens ferredoxin gene: characterization and role in gene expression. Microbiology 149: 3083– 3091.
88. Karberg, M.,, H. Guo,, J. Zhong,, R. Coon,, J. Perutka, and, A. M. Lambowitz. 2001. Group II introns as controllable gene targeting vectors for genetic manipulation of bacteria. Nat. Biotechnol. 19: 1162– 1167.
89. Kashket, E. R., and, Z. Y. Cao. 1995. Clostridial strain degeneration. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 17: 307– 315.
90. Katayama, S.,, B. Dupuy,, G. Daube,, B. China, and, S. T. Cole. 1996. Genome mapping of Clostridium per-fringens strains with I- CeuI shows many virulence genes to be plasmid-borne. Mol. Gen. Genet. 251: 720– 726.
91. Kennedy, C. L.,, E. O. Krejany,, L. F. Young,, J. R. O’connor,, M. M. Awad,, R. L. Boyd,, J. J. Emmins,, D. Lyras, and, J. I. Rood. 2005. The a-toxin of Clostridium septicum is essential for virulence. Mol. Microbiol. 57: 1357– 1366.
92. Killgore, G.,, A. Thompson,, S. Johnson,, J. Brazier,, E. Kuijper,, J. Pepin,, E. H. Frost,, P. Savelkoul,, B. Nicholson,, R. J. van den Berg,, H. Kato,, S. P. Sambol,, W. Zukowski,, C. Woods,, B. Limbago,, D. N. Gerding, and, L. C. McDonald. 2008. Comparison of seven techniques for typing international epidemic strains of Clostridium difficile: restriction endonuclease analysis, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, PCR-ribotyping, mul- tilocus sequence typing, multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis, amplified fragment length poly morphism, and surface layer protein A gene sequence typing. J. Clin. Microbiol. 46: 431– 437.
93. Kim, A. Y., and, H. P. Blaschek. 1993. Construction and characterization of a phage-plasmid hybrid (phagemid), pCAK1, containing the replicative form of viruslike particle CAK1 isolated from Clostridium acetobutylicum NCIB 6444. J. Bacteriol. 175: 3838– 3843.
94. Kim, A. Y., and, H. P. Blaschek. 1989. Construction of an Escherichia coli- Clostridium perfringens shuttle vector and plasmid transformation of Clostridium perfringens. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 55: 360– 365.
95. Kok, J.,, J. M. van der Vossen, and, G. Venema. 1984. Construction of plasmid cloning vectors for lactic streptococci which also replicate in Bacillus subtilis and Esch-erichia coli. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 48: 726– 731.
96. Lamberg, A.,, S. Nieminen,, M. Qiao, and, H. Savilahti. 2002. Efficient insertion mutagenesis strategy for bacterial genomes involving electroporation of in vitro-assembled DNA transposition complexes of bacterio-phage Mu. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68: 705– 712.
97. Lambowitz, A. M., and, S. Zimmerly. 2004. Mobile group II introns. Ann. Rev. Genet. 38: 1– 35.
98. Lanckriet, A.,, L. Timbermont,, L. J. Happonen,, M. I. Pajunen,, F. Pasmans,, F. Haesebrouck,, R. Ducatelle,, H. Savilahti, and, F. Van Immerseel. 2009. Generation of single-copy transposon insertions in Clostridium perfringens by electroporation of phage Mu DNA transposition complexes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 75: 2638– 2642.
99. Launay, A.,, S. A. Ballard,, P. D. Johnson,, M. L. Grayson, and, T. Lambert. 2006. Transfer of vancomycin resistance transposon Tn 1549 from Clostridium symbio-sum to Enterococcus spp. in the gut of gnotobiotic mice. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 50: 1054– 1062.
100. Lee, C. K.,, P. Dürre,, H. Hippe, and, G. Gottschalk. 1987. Screening for plasmids in the genus Clostridium. Arch. Microbiol. 148: 107– 114.
101. Lee, S. Y.,, L. D. Mermelstein, and, E. T. Papoutsakis. 1993. Determination of plasmid copy number and stability in Clostridium acetobutylicum ATCC 824. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 108: 319– 323.
102. Li, J.,, K. Miyamoto, and, B. A. Mcclane. 2007. Comparison of virulence plasmids among Clostridium perfringens type E isolates. Infect. Immun. 75: 1811– 1819.
103. Li, K.,, B. Chen,, Y. Zhou,, R. Huang,, Y. Liang,, Q. Wang,, Z. Xiao, and, J. Xiao. 2009. Multiplex quantification of 16S rDNA of predominant bacteria group within human fecal samples by polymerase chain reaction-ligase detection reaction (PCR-LDR). J. Microbiol. Methods 76: 289– 294.
104. Lin, W. J., and, E. A. Johnson. 1991. Transposon Tn 916 mutagenesis in Clostridium botulinum. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 57: 2946– 2950.
105. Lindström, M.,, K. Hinderink,, P. Somervuo,, K. Kiviniemi,, M. Nevas,, Y. Chen,, P. Auvinen,, A. T. Carter,, D. R. Mason,, M. W. Peck, and, H. Korkeala. 2009. Comparative genomic hybridization analysis of two predominant Nordic group I (proteolytic) Clostridium botulinum type B clusters. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 75: 2643– 2651.
106. Liyanage, H.,, P. Holcroft,, V. J. Evans,, S. Keis,, S. R. Wilkinson,, E. R. Kashket, and, M. Young. 2000. A new insertion sequence, IS Cb1, from Clostridium beijerinckii NCIMB 8052. J. Mol. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2: 107– 113.
107. Liyanage, H.,, M. Young, and, E. R. Kashket. 2000. Butanol tolerance of Clostridium beijerinckii NCIMB 8052 associated with down-regulation of gldA by antisense RNA. J. Mol. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2: 87– 93.
108. Lundie, L. L., Jr., and, H. L. Drake. 1984. Development of a minimally defined medium for the acetogen Clostridium thermoaceticum. J. Bacteriol. 159: 700– 703.
109. Lyras, D.,, V. Adams,, S. A. Ballard,, W. L. Teng,, P. M. Howarth,, P. K. Crellin,, T. L. Bannam,, J. G. Songer, and, J. I. Rood. 2009. tIS Cpe8, an IS 1595-family lincomycin resistance element located on a conjugative plasmid in Clostridium perfringens. J Bacteriol. 191: 6345– 6351.
110. Lyras, D., and, J. I. Rood. 2006. Clostridial genetics, p. 672– 687. In V. A. Fischetti (ed.), Gram-Positive Pathogens, 2nd ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
111. Lyras, D., and, J. I. Rood. 1998. Conjugative transfer of RP4- oriT shuttle vectors from Escherichia coli to Clostridium perfringens. Plasmid 39: 160– 164.
112. Lyras, D., and, J. I. Rood. 1996. Genetic organization and distribution of tetracycline resistance determinants in Clostridium perfringens. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 40: 2500– 2504.
113. Lyras, D., and, J. I. Rood. 1997. Transposable genetic elements and antibiotic resistance determinants from Clostridium perfringens and Clostridium difficile, p. 73– 92. In J. I. Rood,, B. A. McClane,, J. G. Songer, and, R. W. Titball (ed.), The Clostridia: Molecular Biology and Patho-genesis. Academic Press, London, United Kingdom.
114. Lyras, D., and, J. I. Rood. 2005. Transposable genetic elements of clostridia, p. 631– 643. In P. Dürre (ed.), Handbook on Clostridia. Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL.
115. Maamar, H.,, P. de Philip,, J. P. Belaich, and, C. Tardif. 2003. IS Cce1 and IS Cce2, two novel insertion sequences in Clostridium cellulolyticum. J. Bacteriol. 185: 714– 725.
116. Macdonald, T. E.,, C. H. Helma,, L. O. Ticknor,, P. J. Jackson,, R. T. Okinaka,, L. A. Smith,, T. J. Smith, and, K. K. Hill. 2008. Differentiation of Clostridium botulinum serotype A strains by multiple-locus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 74: 875– 882.
117. Makoff, A. J.,, M. D. Oxer,, M. A. Romanos,, N. F. Fairweather, and, S. Ballantine. 1989. Expression of tetanus toxin fragment C in E. coli: high level expression by removing rare codons. Nucleic Acids Res. 17: 10191– 10202.
118. Malmgren, R. A., and, C. C. Flanigan. 1955. Localization of the vegetative form of Clostridium tetani in mouse tumors following intravenous spore administration. Cancer Res. 15: 473– 478.
119. Mani, N.,, B. Dupuy, and, A. L. Sonenshein. 2006. Isolation of RNA polymerase from Clostridium difficile and characterization of glutamate dehydrogenase and rRNA gene promoters in vitro and in vivo. J. Bacteriol. 188: 96– 102.
120. Mani, N.,, D. Lyras,, L. Barroso,, P. Howarth,, T. Wilkins,, J. I. Rood,, A. L. Sonenshein, and, B. Dupuy. 2002. Environmental response and autoregulation of Clostridium difficile TxeR, a sigma factor for toxin gene expression. J. Bacteriol. 184: 5971– 5978.
121. Marsh, J. W.,, M. M. O’Leary,, K. A. Shutt,, A. W. Pasculle,, S. Johnson,, D. N. Gerding,, C. A. Muto, and, L. H. Harrison. 2006. Multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis for investigation of Clostridium difficile transmission in hospitals. J. Clin. Microbiol. 44: 2558– 2566.
122. Marshall, K. M.,, M. Bradshaw,, S. Pellett, and, E. A. Johnson. 2007. Plasmid encoded neurotoxin genes in Clostridium botulinum serotype A subtypes. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 361: 49– 54.
123. Martin, P.,, P. Trieu-cuot, and, P. Courvalin. 1986. Nucleotide sequence of the tetM tetracycline resistance determinant of the streptococcal conjugative shuttle transposon Tn 1545. Nucleic Acids Res. 14: 7047– 7058.
124. Marvaud, J. C.,, M. Gibert,, K. Inoue,, Y. Fujinaga,, K. Oguma, and, M. R. Popoff. 1998. botR/A is a positive regulator of botulinum neurotoxin and associated non-toxin protein genes in Clostridium botulinum A. Mol. Microbiol. 29: 1009– 1018.
125. Matsushita, C.,, O. Matsushita,, M. Koyama, and, A. Okabe. 1994. A Clostridium perfringens vector for the selection of promoters. Plasmid 31: 317– 319.
126. Mauchline, M. L.,, T. O. Davis, and, N. P. Minton. 1999. Clostridia, p. 475– 490. In A. L. Demain and, J. E. Davies (ed.), Manual of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, 2nd ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
127. Mayer, M. J.,, A. Narbad, and, M. J. Gasson. 2008. Molecular characterization of a Clostridium difficile bacteriophage and its cloned biologically active endolysin. J. Bacteriol. 190: 6734– 6740.
128. Mccoy, E., and, E. B. Fred. 1941. The stability of a culture for industrial fermentation. J. Bacteriol. 41: 90– 91.
129. Mendez, B. S., and, R. F. Gomez. 1982. Isolation of Clostridium thermocellum auxotrophs. Appl. Environ. Mi-crobiol. 43: 495– 496.
130. Mengesha, A.,, L. Dubois,, K. Paesmans,, B. Wouters,, P. Lambin, and, J. Theys. 2009. Clostridia in anti-tumour therapy, p. 199– 214. In H. Brüggemann and, G. Gottschalk (ed.), Clostridia. Molecular Biology in the Post-Genomic Era. Caister Academic Press, Norfolk, United Kingdom.
131. Mermelstein, L. D.,, N. E. Welker,, G. N. Bennett, and, E. T. Papoutsakis. 1992. Expression of cloned homologous fermentative genes in Clostridium acetobutylicum ATCC 824. Biotechnology 10: 190– 195.
132. Minton, N.,, G. Carter,, M. Herbert,, T. O’Keeffe,, D. Purdy,, M. Elmore,, A. Ostrowski,, O. Pennington, and, I. Davis. 2004. The development of Clostridium difficile genetic systems. Anaerobe 10: 75– 84.
133. Minton, N. P.,, J. K. Brehm,, T. J. Swinfield,, S. M. Whelan,, M. L. Mauchline,, N. Bodsworth, and, J. D. Oultram. 1993. Clostridial cloning vectors, p. 119– 156. In D. R. Woods (ed.), The Clostridia and Biotechnology. Butterworth-Heinemann, Stoneham, MA.
134. Minton, N. P., and, J. D. Oultram. 1988. Host: vector systems for gene cloning in Clostridium. Microbiol. Sci. 5: 310– 315.
135. Minton, N. P.,, T. J. Swinfield,, J. K. Brehm,, S. M. Whelan, and, J. D. Oultram. 1993. Vectors for use in Clostridium acetobutylicum, p. 120– 140. In M. Sebald (ed.), Genetics and Molecular Biology of Anaerobic Bacteria. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY.
136. Mitchell, W. J. 2001. Biology and physiology, p. 49– 104. In H. Bahl and, P. Dürre (ed.), Clostridia. Biotechnology and Medical Applications. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Germany.
137. Mitchell, W. J. 1998. Physiology of carbohydrate to solvent conversion by clostridia. Adv. Microb. Physiol. 39: 31– 130.
138. Miyamoto, K.,, D. J. Fisher,, J. Li,, S. Sayeed,, S. Akimoto, and, B. A. Mcclane. 2006. Complete sequencing and diversity analysis of the enterotoxin-encoding plasmids in Clostridium perfringens type A non-food-borne human gastrointestinal disease isolates. J. Bacteriol. 188: 1585– 1598.
139. Miyamoto, K.,, J. Li,, S. Sayeed,, S. Akimoto, and, B. A. McClane. 2008. Sequencing and diversity analyses reveal extensive similarities between some epsilon-toxin-encoding plasmids and the pCPF5603 Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin plasmid. J. Bacteriol. 190: 7178– 7188.
140. Mohr, G.,, D. Smith,, M. Belfort, and, A. M. Lambowitz. 2000. Rules for DNA target-site recognition by a lacto-coccal group II intron enable retargeting of the intron to specific DNA sequences. Genes Dev. 14: 559– 573.
141. Monod, M.,, C. Denoya, and, D. Dubnau. 1986. Sequence and properties of pIM13, a macrolide-lincos-amide-streptogramin B resistance plasmid from Bacillus subtilis. J. Bacteriol. 167: 138– 147.
142. Moore, L. V. H.,, E. P. Cato, and, W. E. C. Moore. 1987. Anaerobe Manual Update. Supplement to the VPI Anaerobe Manual, 4th ed. Department of Anaerobic Microbiology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacks-burg, VA.
143. Myers, G. S.,, D. A. Rasko,, J. K. Cheung,, J. Ravel,, R. Seshadri,, R. T. DeBoy,, Q. Ren,, J. Varga,, M. M. Awad,, L. M. Brinkac,, S. C. Daugherty,, D. H. Haft,, R. J. Dodson,, R. Madupu,, W. C. Nelson,, M. J. Rosovitz,, S. A. Sullivan,, H. Khouri,, G. I. Dimitrov,, K. L. Watkins,, S. Mulligan,, J. Benton,, D. Radune,, D. J. Fisher,, H. S. Atkins,, T. Hiscox,, B. H. Jost,, S. J. Billington,, J. G. Songer,, B. A. McClane,, R. W. Titball,, J. I. Rood,, S. B. Melville, and, I. T. Paulsen. 2006. Skewed genomic variability in strains of the toxigenic bacterial pathogen, Clostridium perfringens. Genome Res. 16: 1031– 1040.
144. Nakayama, S.,, T. Kosaka,, H. Hirakawa,, K. Matsuura,, S. Yoshino, and, K. Furukawa. 2008. Metabolic engineering for solvent productivity by downregulation of the hydrogenase gene cluster hupCBA in Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum strain N1-4. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 78: 483– 493.
145. Neumann, A. P., and, T. G. Rehberger. 2009. MLST analysis reveals a highly conserved core genome among poultry isolates of Clostridium septicum. Anaerobe 15: 99– 106.
146. Nijland, R.,, C. Lindner,, M. van Hartskamp,, L. W. Hamoen, and, O. P. Kuipers. 2007. Heterologous production and secretion of Clostridium perfringens (β-toxoid in closely related Gram-positive hosts. J. Biotechnol. 127: 361– 372.
147. Nolling, J.,, G. Breton,, M. V. Omelchenko,, K. S. Makarova,, Q. Zeng,, R. Gibson,, H. M. Lee,, J. Dubois,, D. Qiu,, J. Hitti,, Y. I. Wolf,, R. L. Tatusov,, F. Sabathe,, L. Doucette-Stamm,, P. Soucaille,, M. J. Daly,, G. N. Bennett,, E. V. Koonin, and, D. R. Smith. 2001. Genome sequence and comparative analysis of the solvent-producing bacterium Clostridium acetobutylicum. J. Bacteriol. 183: 4823– 4838.
148. Ogata, S., and, M. Hongo. 1979. Bacteriophages of the genus Clostridium. Adv. Appl. Microbiol. 25: 241– 273.
149. Onyenwoke, R. U.,, J. A. Brill,, K. Farahi, and, J. Wiegel. 2004. Sporulation genes in members of the low G+C Gram-type-positive phylogenetic branch (Fir-micutes). Arch. Microbiol. 182: 182– 192.
150. Oultram, J. D., and, M. Young. 1985. Conjugal transfer of plasmid pAMβ1 from Streptococcus lactis and Bacillus subtilis to Clostridium acetobutylicum. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 27: 129– 134.
151. Paatero, A. O.,, H. Turakainen,, L. J. Happonen,, C. Olsson,, T. Palomaki,, M. I. Pajunen,, X. Meng,, T. Otonkoski,, T. Tuuri,, C. Berry,, N. Malani,, M. J. Frilander,, F. D. Bushman, and, H. Savilahti. 2008. Bacteriophage Mu integration in yeast and mammalian genomes. Nucleic Acids Res. 36: e148.
152. Papoutsakis, E. T. 2008. Engineering solventogenic clostridia. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 19: 420– 429.
153. Paredes, C. J.,, K. V. Alsaker, and, E. T. Papoutsakis. 2005. A comparative genomic view of clostridial sporulation and physiology. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 3: 969– 978.
154. Paredes, C. J.,, I. Rigoutsos, and, E. T. Papoutsakis. 2004. Transcriptional organization of the Clostridium ace-tobutylicum genome. Nucleic Acids Res. 32: 1973– 1981.
155. Parker, R. C.,, H. C. Plummer, et al. 1947. Effect of histolyticus infection and toxin on transplantable mouse tumors. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 66: 461– 467.
156. Parsons, J. A.,, T. L. Bannam,, R. J. Devenish, and, J. I. Rood. 2007. TcpA, an FtsK/SpoIIIE homolog, is essential for transfer of the conjugative plasmid pCW3 in Clostridium perfringens. J. Bacteriol. 189: 7782– 7790.
157. Peck, M. W. 2009. Biology and genomic analysis of Clostridium botulinum. Adv. Microb. Physiol. 55: 183– 265, 320.
158. Pennington, O. J. 2006. The development of molecular tools for the expression of prodrug converting enzymes in Clostridium sporogenes. Ph.D. thesis. The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom.
159. Perret, S.,, H. Maamar,, J. P. Belaich, and, C. Tardif. 2004. Use of antisense RNA to modify the composition of cellulosomes produced by Clostridium cellulolyticum. Mol. Microbiol. 51: 599– 607.
160. Perreten, V.,, L. Vorlet-Fawer,, P. Slickers,, R. Ehricht,, P. Kuhnert, and, J. Frey. 2005. Microarray-based detection of 90 antibiotic resistance genes of gram-positive bacteria. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43: 2291– 2302.
161. Perutka, J.,, W. Wang,, D. Goerlitz, and, A. M. Lambowitz. 2004. Use of computer-designed group II introns to disrupt Escherichia coli DExH/D-box protein and DNA helicase genes. J. Mol. Biol. 336: 421– 439.
162. Petit, L.,, M. Gibert, and, M. R. Popoff. 1999. Clostridium perfringens: toxinotype and genotype. Trends Microbiol. 7: 104– 110.
163. Phillips-Jones, M. K. 1993. Bioluminescence (lux) expression in the anaerobe Clostridium perfringens. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 106: 265– 270.
164. Phillips-Jones, M. K. 2000. Use of a lux reporter system for monitoring rapid changes in alpha-toxin gene expression in Clostridium perfringens during growth. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 188: 29– 33.
165. Pierce, E.,, G. Xie,, R. D. Barabote,, E. Saunders,, C. S. Han,, J. C. Detter,, P. Richardson,, T. S. Brettin,, A. Das,, L. G. Ljungdahl, and, S. W. Ragsdale. 2008. The complete genome sequence of Moorella thermoacetica (f. Clostridium thermoaceticum). Environ. Microbiol. 10: 2550– 2573.
166. Prescott, S. C., and, C. G. Dunn. 1940. Industrial Microbiology. McGraw-Hill Company, New York, NY.
167. Projan, S. J.,, M. Monod,, C. S. Narayanan, and, D. Dubnau. 1987. Replication properties of pIM13, a naturally occurring plasmid found in Bacillus subtilis, and of its close relative pE5, a plasmid native to Staphylococcus aureus. J. Bacteriol. 169: 5131– 5139.
168. Purdy, D.,, T. A. O’Keeffe,, M. Elmore,, M. Herbert,, A. McLeod,, M. Bokori-Brown,, A. Ostrowski, and, N. P. Minton. 2002. Conjugative transfer of clostridial shuttle vectors from Escherichia coli to Clostridium difficile through circumvention of the restriction barrier. Mol. Microbiol. 46: 439– 452.
169. Quixley, K. W., and, S. J. Reid. 2000. Construction of a reporter gene vector for Clostridium beijerinckii using a Clostridium endoglucanase gene. J. Mol. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2: 53– 57.
170. Raju, D.,, P. Setlow, and, M. R. Sarker. 2007. Antisense-RNA-mediated decreased synthesis of small, acid-soluble spore proteins leads to decreased resistance of Clostridium perfringens spores to moist heat and UV radiation. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73: 2048– 2053.
171. Raphael, B. H., and, J. D. Andreadis. 2007. Real-time PCR detection of the nontoxic nonhemagglutinin gene as a rapid screening method for bacterial isolates harboring the botulinum neurotoxin (A-G) gene complex. J. Microbiol. Methods 71: 343– 346.
172. Raphael, B. H.,, C. Luquez,, L. M. Mccroskey,, L. A. Joseph,, M. J. Jacobson,, E. A. Johnson,, S. E. Maslanka, and, J. D. Andreadis. 2008. Genetic homogeneity of Clostridium botulinum type A1 strains with unique toxin gene clusters. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 74: 4390– 4397.
173. Ravagnani, A.,, K. C. Jennert,, E. Steiner,, R. Grunberg,, J. R. Jefferies,, S. R. Wilkinson,, D. I. Young,, E. C. Tidswell,, D. P. Brown,, P. Youngman,, J. G. Morris, and, M. Young. 2000. Spo0A directly controls the switch from acid to solvent production in solvent-forming clos-tridia. Mol. Microbiol. 37: 1172– 1185.
174. Roberts, A. P.,, M. Chandler,, P. Courvalin,, G. Guedon,, P. Mullany,, T. Pembroke,, J. I. Rood,, C. J. Smith,, A. O. Summers,, M. Tsuda, and, D. E. Berg. 2008. Revised nomenclature for transposable genetic elements. Plasmid 60: 167– 173.
175. Rood, J. I. 2004. Virulence plasmids of spore-forming bacteria, p. 413– 422. In B. E. Funnell and, G. J. Phillips (ed.), Plasmid Biology. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
176. Rood, J. I., and, S. T. Cole. 1991. Molecular genetics and pathogenesis of Clostridium perfringens. Microbiol. Rev. 55: 621– 648.
177. Rood, J. I., and, M. Lyristis. 1995. Regulation of extracellular toxin production in Clostridium perfringens. Trends Microbiol. 3: 192– 196.
178. Sabathe, F.,, C. Croux,, E. Cornillot, and, P. Soucaille. 2002. amyP, a reporter gene to study strain degeneration in Clostridium acetobutylicum ATCC 824. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 210: 93– 98.
179. Sacks, L. E., and, P. A. Thompson. 1978. Clear, defined medium for the sporulation of Clostridium perfringens. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 35: 405– 410.
180. Sakaguchi, Y.,, T. Hayashi,, K. Kurokawa,, K. Nakayama,, K. Oshima,, Y. Fujinaga,, M. Ohnishi,, E. Ohtsubo,, M. Hattori, and, K. Oguma. 2005. The genome sequence of Clostridium botulinum type C neurotoxin-converting phage and the molecular mechanisms of unstable lysog-eny. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102: 17472– 17477.
181. Sakaguchi, Y.,, T. Hayashi,, Y. Yamamoto,, K. Nakayama,, K. Zhang,, S. Ma,, H. Arimitsu, and, K. Oguma. 2009. Molecular analysis of an extrachro-mosomal element containing the C2 toxin gene discovered in Clostridium botulinum type C. J. Bacteriol. 191: 3282– 3291.
182. Sambrook, J.,, P. Maccallum, and, D. Russell. 2001. Molecular Cloning: a Laboratory Manual, 3rd ed. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, NY.
183. Sawires, Y. S., and, J. G. Songer. 2005. Multiple-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis for strain typing of Clostridium perfringens. Anaerobe 11: 262– 272.
184. Sayeed, S.,, J. Li, and, B. A. Mcclane. 2007. Virulence plasmid diversity in Clostridium perfringens type D isolates. Infect. Immun. 75: 2391– 2398.
185. Schantz, E. J., and, E. A. Johnson. 1992. Properties and use of botulinum toxin and other microbial neurotoxins in medicine. Microbiol. Rev. 56: 80– 99.
186. Schmidt, J. A. 1998. M.S. thesis. University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI.
187. Schumann, W. 2007. Production of recombinant proteins in Bacillus subtilis. Adv. Appl. Microbiol. 62: 137– 189.
188. Scotcher, M. C., and, G. N. Bennett. 2008. Activity of abrB310 promoter in wild type and spo0A-deficient strains of Clostridium acetobutylicum. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 35: 743– 750.
189. Scotcher, M. C., and, G. N. Bennett. 2005. SpoIIE regulates sporulation but does not directly affect solventogen-esis in Clostridium acetobutylicum ATCC 824. J. Bacteriol. 187: 1930– 1936.
190. Sebaihia, M.,, M. W. Peck,, N. P. Minton,, N. R. Thomson,, M. T. Holden,, W. J. Mitchell,, A. T. Carter,, S. D. Bentley,, D. R. Mason,, L. Crossman,, C. J. Paul,, A. Ivens,, M. H. Wells-Bennik,, I. J. Davis,, A. M. Cerdeno-Tarraga,, C. Churcher,, M. A. Quail,, T. Chillingworth,, T. Feltwell,, A. Fraser,, I. Goodhead,, Z. Hance,, K. Jagels,, N. Larke,, M. Maddison,, S. Moule,, K. Mungall,, H. Norbertczak,, E. Rabbinowitsch,, M. Sanders,, M. Simmonds,, B. White,, S. Whithead, and, J. Parkhill. 2007. Genome sequence of a proteolytic (Group I) Clostridium botulinum strain Hall A and comparative analysis of the clostridial genomes. Genome Res. 17: 1082– 1092.
191. Sebaihia, M.,, B. W. Wren,, P. Mullany,, N. F. Fairweather,, N. Minton,, R. Stabler,, N. R. Thomson,, A. P. Roberts,, A. M. Cerdeno-Tarraga,, H. Wang,, M. T. Holden,, A. Wright,, C. Churcher,, M. A. Quail,, S. Baker,, N. Bason,, K. Brooks,, T. Chillingworth,, A. Cronin,, P. Davis,, L. Dowd,, A. Fraser,, T. Feltwell,, Z. Hance,, S. Holroyd,, K. Jagels,, S. Moule,, K. Mungall,, C. Price,, E. Rabbinowitsch,, S. Sharp,, M. Simmonds,, K. Stevens,, L. Unwin,, S. Whithead,, B. Dupuy,, G. Dougan,, B. Barrell, and, J. Parkhill. 2006. The multidrug-resis- tant human pathogen Clostridium difficile has a highly mobile, mosaic genome. Nat. Genet. 38: 779– 786.
192. Sebald, M. 1994. Genetic basis for antibiotic resistance in anaerobes. Clin. Infect. Dis. 18(Suppl. 4): S297– S304.
193. Sebald, M., and, R. N. Costilow. 1975. Minimal growth requirements for Clostridium perfringens and isolation of auxotrophic mutants. Appl. Microbiol. 29: 1– 6.
194. Seedorf, H.,, W. F. Fricke,, B. Veith,, H. Brüggemann,, H. Liesegang,, A. Strittmatter,, M. Miethke,, W. Buckel,, J. Hinderberger,, F. Li,, C. Hagemeier,, R. K. Thauer, and, G. Gottschalk. 2008. The genome of Clostridium kluyveri, a strict anaerobe with unique metabolic features. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 105: 2128– 2133.
195. Sergeev, N.,, M. Distler,, S. Courtney,, S. F. Al-Khaldi,, D. Volokhov,, V. Chizhikov, and, A. Rasooly. 2004. Mul-tipathogen oligonucleotide microarray for environmental and biodefense applications. Biosens. Bioelectron. 20: 684– 698.
196. Setlow, M., and, E. A. Johnson. 2007. Spores and their significance, p. 35– 67. In M. P. Doyle and, L. R. Beuchat (ed.), Food Microbiology: Fundamentals and Frontiers, 3rd ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
197. Shao, L.,, S. Hu,, Y. Yang,, Y. Gu,, J. Chen,, W. Jiang, and, S. Yang. 2007. Targeted gene disruption by use of a group II intron (targetron) vector in Clostridium acetobutylicum. Cell Res. 17: 963– 965.
198. Sharp, P. M.,, E. Bailes,, R. J. Grocock,, J. F. Peden, and, R. E. Sockett. 2005. Variation in the strength of selected codon usage bias among bacteria. Nucleic Acids Res. 33: 1141– 1153.
199. Shi, Z., and, H. P. Blaschek. 2008. Transcriptional analysis of Clostridium beijerinckii NCIMB 8052 and the hyper-butanol-producing mutant BA101 during the shift from acidogenesis to solventogenesis. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 74: 7709– 7714.
200. Shimizu, T.,, K. Ohtani,, H. Hirakawa,, K. Ohshima,, A. Yamashita,, T. Shiba,, N. Ogasawara,, M. Hattori,, S. Kuhara, and, H. Hayashi. 2002. Complete genome sequence of Clostridium perfringens, an anaerobic flesh-eater. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99: 996– 1001.
201. Sillers, R.,, M. A. Al-Hinai, and, E. T. Papoutsakis. 2009. Aldehyde-alcohol dehydrogenase and/or thiolase overex-pression coupled with CoA transferase downregulation lead to higher alcohol titers and selectivity in Clostridium aceto-butylicum fermentations. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 102: 38– 49.
202. Sillers, R.,, A. Chow,, B. Tracy, and, E. T. Papoutsakis. 2008. Metabolic engineering of the non-sporulating, non-solventogenic Clostridium acetobutylicum strain M5 to produce butanol without acetone demonstrate the robustness of the acid-formation pathways and the importance of the electron balance. Metab. Eng. 10: 321– 332.
203. Smith, T. J.,, K. K. Hill,, B. T. Foley,, J. C. Detter,, A. C. Munk,, D. C. Bruce,, N. A. Doggett,, L. A. Smith,, J. D. Marks,, G. Xie, and, T. S. Brettin. 2007. Analysis of the neurotoxin complex genes in Clostridium botulinum A1-A4 and B1 strains: BoNT/A3,/Ba4 and/B1 clusters are located within plasmids. PLoS One 2: e1271.
204. Smyth, H. F., and, W. L. Obold. 1930. Industrial Microbiology: the Utilization of Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in Industrial Processes. The Williams & Wilkins Company, Baltimore, MD.
205. Song, L.,, S. Ahn, and, D. R. Walt. 2006. Fiber-optic mi-crosphere-based arrays for multiplexed biological warfare agent detection. Anal. Chem. 78: 1023– 1033.
206. Soutschek-Bauer, E.,, L. Hartl, and, W. L. Staudenbauer. 1985. Transformation of Clostridium thermohydrosulfu-ricum DSM 568 with plasmid DNA. Biotechnol. Lett. 7: 705– 710.
207. Stabler, R. A.,, D. N. Gerding,, J. G. Songer,, D. Drudy,, J. S. Brazier,, H. T. Trinh,, A. A. Witney,, J. Hinds, and, B. W. Wren. 2006. Comparative phyloge-nomics of Clostridium difficile reveals clade specificity and microevolution of hypervirulent strains. J. Bacteriol. 188: 7297– 7305.
208. Stackebrandt, E., and, H. Hippe. 2001. Taxonomy and systematics, p. 19– 48. In H. Bahl and, P. Dürre (ed.), Clostridia. Biotechnology and Medical Applications. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Germany.
209. Stackebrandt, E.,, I. Kramer,, J. Swiderski, and, H. Hippe. 1999. Phylogenetic basis for a taxonomic dissection of the genus Clostridium. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 24: 253– 258.
210. Steen, J. A.,, T. L. Bannam,, W. L. Teng,, R. J. Devenish, and, J. I. Rood. 2009. The putative coupling protein TcpA interacts with other pCW3-encoded proteins to form an essential part of the conjugation complex. J. Bacteriol. 191: 2926– 2933.
211. Steil, L.,, M. Serrano,, A. O. Henriques, and, U. Volker. 2005. Genome-wide analysis of temporally regulated and compartment-specific gene expression in sporulating cells of Bacillus subtilis. Microbiology 151: 399– 420.
212. Swinfield, T. J.,, J. D. Oultram,, D. E. Thompson,, J. K. Brehm, and, N. P. Minton. 1990. Physical characterisation of the replication region of the Streptococcus faecalis plasmid pAM beta 1. Gene 87: 79– 90.
213. Teng, W. L.,, T. L. Bannam,, J. A. Parsons, and, J. I. Rood. 2008. Functional characterization and localization of the TcpH conjugation protein from Clostridium perfringens. J. Bacteriol. 190: 5075– 5086.
214. Theys, J.,, A. W. Landuyt,, S. Nuyts,, L. Van Mellaert,, P. Lambin, and, J. Anne. 2001. Clostridium as a tumor-specific delivery system of therapeutic proteins. Cancer Detect. Prev. 25: 548– 557.
215. Thormann, K.,, L. Feustel,, K. Lorenz,, S. Nakotte, and, P. Dürre. 2002. Control of butanol formation in Clostridium acetobutylicum by transcriptional activation. J. Bacteriol. 184: 1966– 1973.
216. Tomas, C. A.,, S. B. Tummala, and, E. T. Papoutsakis. 2005. Metabolic engineering of solventogenic clostridia, p. 813– 830. In P. Dürre (ed.), Handbook on Clostridia. Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL.
217. Truffaut, N.,, J. Hubert, and, G. Reysset. 1989. Construction of shuttle vectors useful for transforming Clostridium acetobutylicum. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 58: 15– 20.
218. Tummala, S. B.,, S. G. Junne, and, E. T. Papoutsakis. 2003. Antisense RNA downregulation of coenzyme A transferase combined with alcohol-aldehyde dehy-drogenase overexpression leads to predominantly alco-hologenic Clostridium acetobutylicum fermentations. J. Bacteriol. 185: 3644– 3653.
219. Tummala, S. B.,, C. Tomas,, L. M. Harris,, N. E. Welker,, F. B. Rudolph,, G. N. Bennett, and, E. T. Papoutsakis. 2001. Genetic tools for solventogenic clostridia, p. 105– 123. In H. Bahl and, P. Dürre (ed.), Clostridia. Biotechnology and Medical Applications. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Germany.
220. Tummala, S. B.,, C. Tomas, and, E. Papoutsakis. 2005. Gene analysis in clostridia, p. 53– 70. In P. Dürre (ed.), Handbook on Clostridia. Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL.
221. Tummala, S. B.,, N. E. Welker, and, E. T. Papoutsakis. 2003. Design of antisense RNA constructs for downregu-lation of the acetone formation pathway of Clostridium acetobutylicum. J. Bacteriol. 185: 1923– 1934.
222. Tummala, S. B.,, N. E. Welker, and, E. T. Papoutsakis. 1999. Development and characterization of a gene expression reporter system for Clostridium acetobutylicum ATCC 824. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65: 3793– 3799.
223. Van Heyningen, W. E. 1950. Bacterial Toxins. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, United Kingdom.
224. Varga, J.,, V. L. Stirewalt, and, S. B. Melville. 2004. The CcpA protein is necessary for efficient sporulation and enterotoxin gene ( cpe) regulation in Clostridium perfringens. J. Bacteriol. 186: 5221– 5229.
225. Vidal, J. E.,, J. Chen,, J. Li, and, B. A. Mcclane. 2009. Use of an EZ-Tn 5-based random mutagenesis system to identify a novel toxin regulatory locus in Clostridium perfringens strain 13. PLoS One 4: e6232.
226. Wagner, E. G., and, R. W. Simons. 1994. Antisense RNA control in bacteria, phages, and plasmids. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 48: 713– 742.
227. Walters, D. M.,, V. L. Stirewalt, and, S. B. Melville. 1999. Cloning, sequence, and transcriptional regulation of the operon encoding a putative N-acetylmannosamine-6-phosphate epimerase ( nanE) and sialic acid lyase ( nanA) in Clostridium perfringens. J. Bacteriol. 181: 4526– 4532.
228. Watt, B., and, R. Brown. 1975. A defined medium for the growth of Clostridium tetani and other anaerobes of clinical interest. J. Med. Microbiol. 8: 167– 172.
229. Wei, M. Q.,, A. Mengesha,, D. Good, and, J. Anne. 2008. Bacterial targeted tumour therapy—dawn of a new era. Cancer Lett. 259: 16– 27.
230. Weizmann, C. 1949. Trial and Error: the Autobiography of Chaim Weizmann. Harper & Brothers, New York, NY.
231. Wen, Q., and, B. A. Mcclane. 2004. Detection of enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens type A isolates in American retail foods. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70: 2685– 2691.
232. Whitmer, M. E., and, E. A. Johnson. 1988. Development of improved defined media for Clostridium botu-linum serotypes A, B, and E. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 54: 753– 759.
233. Willis, A. T. 1969. Clostridia of Wound Infection. But-terworths, London, United Kingdom.
234. Wu, S. C,, J. C. Yeung,, Y. Duan,, R. Ye,, S. J. Szarka,, H. R. Habibi, and, S. L. Wong. 2002. Functional production and characterization of a fibrin-specific single-chain antibody fragment from Bacillus subtilis: effects of molecular chaperones and a wall-bound protease on antibody fragment production. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68: 3261– 3269.
235. Yang, W. W.,, E. N. Crow-Willard, and, A. Ponce. 2009. Production and characterization of pure Clostridium spore suspensions. J. Appl. Microbiol. 106: 27– 33.
236. Yoshino, S.,, T. Yoshino,, S. Hara,, S. Ogata, and, S. Hayashida. 1990. Construction of shuttle vector plas-mid between Clostridium acetobutylicum and Escherichia coli. Agric. Biol. Chem. 54: 437– 441.
237. Young, M. 1993. Development and exploitation of conjugative gene transfer in clostridia, p. 99- 117. In D. R. Woods (ed.), The Clostridia and Biotechnology. Butter-worth-Heinemann, Stoneham, MA.
238. Young, M., and, S. T. Cole. 1993. Clostridium, p. 35- 52. In A. L. Sonenshein,, J. A. Hoch, and, R. Losick (ed.), Bacillus subtilis and Other Gram-Positive Bacteria: Biochemistry, Physiology and Molecular Genetics. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
239. Young, M.,, N. P. Minton, and, W. L. Staudenbauer. 1989. Recent advances in the genetics of the clostridia. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 5: 301– 325.
240. Young, M.,, W. L. Staudenbauer, and, N. P. Minton. 1989. Genetics of Clostridium, p. 63- 103. In N. P. Minton and, D. J. Clarke (ed.), Biotechnology Handbooks: Clostridia. Plenum Publishing Corporation, New York, NY.
241. Zhong, J.,, M. Karberg, and, A. M. Lambowitz. 2003. Targeted and random bacterial gene disruption using a group II intron (targetron) vector containing a ret-rotransposition-activated selectable marker. Nucleic Acids Res. 31: 1656– 1664.
242. Zhou, H.,, J. Gong,, J. Brisbin,, H. Yu,, A. J. Sarson,, W. Si,, S. Sharif, and, Y. Han. 2009. Transcriptional profiling analysis of host response to Clostridium perfringens infection in broilers. Poult. Sci. 88: 1023– 1032.
243. Zhou, Y.,, H. Sugiyama,, H. Nakano, and, E. A. Johnson. 1995. The genes for the Clostridium botulinum type G toxin complex are on a plasmid. Infect. Immun. 63: 2087– 2091.
244. Zimmer, M.,, S. Scherer, and, M. J. Loessner. 2002. Genomic analysis of Clostridium perfringens bacteriophage Φ3626, which integrates into guaA and possibly affects sporulation. J. Bacteriol. 184: 4359– 4368.
245. Zverlov, V. V.,, M. Klupp,, J. Krauss, and, W. H. Schwarz. 2008. Mutations in the scaffoldin gene, cipA, of Clostridium thermocellum with impaired cellulosome formation and cellulose hydrolysis: insertions of a new transposable element, IS 1447, and implications for cel-lulase synergism on crystalline cellulose. J. Bacteriol. 190: 4321– 4327.

Tables

Genetic Manipulation of Clostridium
[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555816827.ch17-1,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555816827.ch17-1,properties={foaf_givenname=Marite, foaf_name=Marite Bradshaw, foaf_surname=Bradshaw}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555816827.ch17-2,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555816827.ch17-2,properties={foaf_givenname=Eric A., foaf_name=Eric A. Johnson, foaf_surname=Johnson}]]
Citation: Bradshaw M, Johnson E. 2010. Genetic Manipulation of , p 238-261. In Baltz R, Demain A, Davies J, Bull A, Junker B, Katz L, Lynd L, Masurekar P, Reeves C, Zhao H (ed), Manual of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555816827.ch17
/content/10.1128/9781555816827.ch17.ch17tab01
TABLE 1
Replicons used for construction of clostridial shuttle vectors
Generic image for table
TABLE 1

Replicons used for construction of clostridial shuttle vectors

Citation: Bradshaw M, Johnson E. 2010. Genetic Manipulation of , p 238-261. In Baltz R, Demain A, Davies J, Bull A, Junker B, Katz L, Lynd L, Masurekar P, Reeves C, Zhao H (ed), Manual of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555816827.ch17
/content/10.1128/9781555816827.ch17.ch17tab02
TABLE 2
Antibiotic resistance genes for construction of clostridial shuttle vectors
Generic image for table
TABLE 2

Antibiotic resistance genes for construction of clostridial shuttle vectors

Citation: Bradshaw M, Johnson E. 2010. Genetic Manipulation of , p 238-261. In Baltz R, Demain A, Davies J, Bull A, Junker B, Katz L, Lynd L, Masurekar P, Reeves C, Zhao H (ed), Manual of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555816827.ch17
/content/10.1128/9781555816827.ch17.ch17tab03
TABLE 3
Reporter genes used for construction of clostridial shuttle vectors
Generic image for table
TABLE 3

Reporter genes used for construction of clostridial shuttle vectors

Citation: Bradshaw M, Johnson E. 2010. Genetic Manipulation of , p 238-261. In Baltz R, Demain A, Davies J, Bull A, Junker B, Katz L, Lynd L, Masurekar P, Reeves C, Zhao H (ed), Manual of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555816827.ch17
/content/10.1128/9781555816827.ch17.ch17tab04
TABLE 4
Numbering scheme for pMTL80000-series modular plasmids
Generic image for table
TABLE 4

Numbering scheme for pMTL80000-series modular plasmids

Citation: Bradshaw M, Johnson E. 2010. Genetic Manipulation of , p 238-261. In Baltz R, Demain A, Davies J, Bull A, Junker B, Katz L, Lynd L, Masurekar P, Reeves C, Zhao H (ed), Manual of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555816827.ch17
/content/10.1128/9781555816827.ch17.ch17tab05
TABLE 5
Clostridial genome sequences
Generic image for table
TABLE 5

Clostridial genome sequences

Citation: Bradshaw M, Johnson E. 2010. Genetic Manipulation of , p 238-261. In Baltz R, Demain A, Davies J, Bull A, Junker B, Katz L, Lynd L, Masurekar P, Reeves C, Zhao H (ed), Manual of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, Third Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555816827.ch17

Back to top
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Please check the format of the address you have entered.
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error