1887

Chapter 11 : Overview of Parasitic Pathogens

Authors: Rick L. Tarleton1, Edward J. Pearce2
VIEW AFFILIATIONS HIDE AFFILIATIONS
Affiliations: 1: Center for Tropical & Emerging Global Diseases, Coverdell Center for Biomedical Research (Rm 310B), 500 D.W. Brooks Drive, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602; 2: Trudeau Institute, 154 Algonquin Avenue, Saranac Lake, NY 12983
Content Type: Monograph
Publication Year: 2011

Category: Immunology; Clinical Microbiology

MyBook is a cheap paperback edition of the original book and will be sold at uniform, low price.

Preview this chapter:
Preview Magnify
Zoom in
Zoomout

Overview of Parasitic Pathogens, Page 1 of 2

| /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555816872/9781555815141_Chap11-1.gif /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555816872/9781555815141_Chap11-2.gif

Abstract:

This chapter focuses mainly on parasites that cause serious diseases in humans. Among the parasitic protists, there are two major pathogenic groups, the apicomplexans, named for the anterior complex of organelles involved in host cell invasion, and the flagellated kinetoplastids, named for the large mass of DNA contained within their single, elaborate mitochondrion. Parasitic helminths belong to one of two major phyla, Nematoda or Platyhelminthes. Well-known, free-living members of these phyla are and the planaria, respectively. A theme that has emerged from the study of parasitic diseases is that the decision by the host to make the wrong type of immune response can have disastrous consequences. Intestinal nematodes are the most prevalent helminth parasites. Species such as , the hookworms (, ), whipworms (), and -together referred to as soil-transmitted helminths since they are acquired through contact with earth that has been contaminated with feces from infected humans infect billions of people worldwide. Most parasitic infections are chronic in nature; presumably chronicity provides the selection advantage of increasing the potential for transmission in many cases.

Citation: Tarleton R, Pearce E. 2011. Overview of Parasitic Pathogens, p 143-153. In Kaufmann S, Rouse B, Sacks D (ed), The Immune Response to Infection. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555816872.ch11

Key Concept Ranking

Parasitic Diseases
0.4870492
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus
0.46882984
Infection and Immunity
0.4668843
Human African Trypanosomiasis
0.4632445
MHC Class II
0.4532823
0.4870492
Highlighted Text: Show | Hide
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

Figures

Overview of Parasitic Pathogens
[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555816872.ch11-1,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555816872.ch11-1,properties={foaf_givenname=Rick L., foaf_name=Rick L. Tarleton, foaf_surname=Tarleton, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555816872.ch11-aff1]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555816872.ch11-2,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555816872.ch11-2,properties={foaf_givenname=Edward J., foaf_name=Edward J. Pearce, foaf_surname=Pearce, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555816872.ch11-aff2]]}]]
Citation: Tarleton R, Pearce E. 2011. Overview of Parasitic Pathogens, p 143-153. In Kaufmann S, Rouse B, Sacks D (ed), The Immune Response to Infection. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555816872.ch11
/content/10.1128/9781555816872.ch11.ch11fig01
FIGURE 1
Protozoan infections. A summary of the major protozoan infections of humans and available experimental models. The lists of pathogens are not exhaustive.
10.1128/9781555816872/f0144-01_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555816872/f0144-01.gif
Image of FIGURE 1
FIGURE 1

Protozoan infections. A summary of the major protozoan infections of humans and available experimental models. The lists of pathogens are not exhaustive.

Citation: Tarleton R, Pearce E. 2011. Overview of Parasitic Pathogens, p 143-153. In Kaufmann S, Rouse B, Sacks D (ed), The Immune Response to Infection. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555816872.ch11
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555816872.ch11.ch11fig02
FIGURE 2
Helminth infections. A summary of the major helminth infections of humans and available experimental models. The lists of pathogens are not exhaustive.
10.1128/9781555816872/f0146-01_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555816872/f0146-01.gif
Image of FIGURE 2
FIGURE 2

Helminth infections. A summary of the major helminth infections of humans and available experimental models. The lists of pathogens are not exhaustive.

Citation: Tarleton R, Pearce E. 2011. Overview of Parasitic Pathogens, p 143-153. In Kaufmann S, Rouse B, Sacks D (ed), The Immune Response to Infection. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555816872.ch11
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555816872.ch11.ch11fig03
FIGURE 3
Concomitant immunity. A primary immune response fails to clear the primary infection, (— · —, – – – –) but is able to prevent the establishment of a superinfection following secondary or subsequent exposures to the same pathogen. This contrasts with the more conventional notion of protective immunity in which the primary infection is cleared by the primary immune response and the emergent memory immune response confers strong resistance to secondary infection with the same pathogen (———).
10.1128/9781555816872/f0148-01_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555816872/f0148-01.gif
Image of FIGURE 3
FIGURE 3

Concomitant immunity. A primary immune response fails to clear the primary infection, (— · —, – – – –) but is able to prevent the establishment of a superinfection following secondary or subsequent exposures to the same pathogen. This contrasts with the more conventional notion of protective immunity in which the primary infection is cleared by the primary immune response and the emergent memory immune response confers strong resistance to secondary infection with the same pathogen (———).

Citation: Tarleton R, Pearce E. 2011. Overview of Parasitic Pathogens, p 143-153. In Kaufmann S, Rouse B, Sacks D (ed), The Immune Response to Infection. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555816872.ch11
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555816872.ch11.ch11fig04
FIGURE 4
Chronic infection. Many bacterial and viral infections are completely cleared within a relatively short time after acquisition (———). In contrast, many parasitic infections are chronic. Chronicity can take many forms, including the establishment of a population of organisms that is long-lived and stable, as is the case for schistosomes (which do not replicate within the definitive host), (– – – –), the control, but not clearance, of a population of replicating parasites, as is the case in certain types of leishmaniasis (—· —) and the cyclical expansion and contraction of replicating parasite populations that is consistent with the emergence of new antigenic variants and their sequential control by the immune response, as is the case for infection (......).
10.1128/9781555816872/f0149-01_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555816872/f0149-01.gif
Image of FIGURE 4
FIGURE 4

Chronic infection. Many bacterial and viral infections are completely cleared within a relatively short time after acquisition (———). In contrast, many parasitic infections are chronic. Chronicity can take many forms, including the establishment of a population of organisms that is long-lived and stable, as is the case for schistosomes (which do not replicate within the definitive host), (– – – –), the control, but not clearance, of a population of replicating parasites, as is the case in certain types of leishmaniasis (—· —) and the cyclical expansion and contraction of replicating parasite populations that is consistent with the emergence of new antigenic variants and their sequential control by the immune response, as is the case for infection (......).

Citation: Tarleton R, Pearce E. 2011. Overview of Parasitic Pathogens, p 143-153. In Kaufmann S, Rouse B, Sacks D (ed), The Immune Response to Infection. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555816872.ch11
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint

References

/content/book/10.1128/9781555816872.ch11
1. Adl, S. M.,, A. G. Simpson,, M. A. Farmer,, R. A. Andersen,, O. R. Anderson,, J. R. Barta,, S. S. Bowser,, G. Brugerolle,, R. A. Fensome,, S. Fredericq,, T. Y. James,, S. Karpov,, P. Kugrens,, J. Krug,, C. E. Lane,, L. A. Lewis,, J. Lodge,, D. H. Lynn,, D. G. Mann,, R. M. McCourt,, L. Mendoza,, O. Moestrup,, S. E. Mozley-Standridge,, T. A. Nerad,, C. A. Shearer,, A. V. Smirnov,, F. W. Spiegel, and, M. F. Taylor. 2005. The new higher level classification of eukaryotes with emphasis on the taxonomy of protists. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 52: 399– 451.
2. Anderson, C. F.,, M. Oukka,, V. J. Kuchroo, and, D. Sacks. 2007. Cd4(+)cd25(-)foxp3(-) Th1 cells are the source of IL-10-mediated immune suppression in chronic cutaneous leishmaniasis. J. Exp. Med. 204: 285– 297.
3. Anthony, R. M.,, L. I. Rutitzky,, J. F. Urban, Jr.,, M. J. Stadecker, and, W. C. Gause. 2007. Protective immune mechanisms in helminth infection. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 7: 975– 987.
4. Artis, D., and, R. K. Grencis. 2008. The intestinal epithelium: sensors to effectors in nematode infection. Mucosal Immunol. 1: 252– 264.
5. Bates, P. A. 2008. Leishmania sand fly interaction: progress and challenges. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 11: 340– 344.
6. Baum, J.,, T. W. Gilberger,, F. Frischknecht, and, M. Meissner. 2008. Host-cell invasion by malaria parasites: insights from plasmodium and toxoplasma. Trends Parasitol, 24: 557– 563.
7. Beattie, L.,, K. J. Evans,, P. M. Kaye, and, D. F. Smith. 2008. Transgenic leishmania and the immune response to infection. Parasite Immunol. 30: 255– 266.
8. Belkaid, Y.,, K. F. Hoffmann,, S. Mendez,, S. Kamhawi,, M. C. Udey,, T. A. Wynn, and, D. L. Sacks. 2001. The role of interleukin (IL)-10 in the persistence of leishmania major in the skin after healing and the therapeutic potential of anti-IL-10 receptor antibody for sterile cure. J. Exp. Med. 194: 1497– 1506.
9. Belkaid, Y.,, C. A. Piccirillo,, S. Mendez,, E. M. Shevach, and, D. L. Sacks. 2002. Cd4+Cd25+ regulatory T cells control leishmania major persistence and immunity. Nature 420: 502– 507.
10. Belkaid, Y.,, C. M. Sun, and, N. Bouladoux. 2006. Parasites and immunoregulatory T cells. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 18: 406– 412
11. Bethony, J.,, S. Brooker,, M. Albonico,, S. M. Geiger,, A. Loukas,, D. Diemert, and, P. J. Hotez. 2006. Soil-transmitted helminth infections: ascariasis, trichuriasis, and hookworm. Lancet 367: 1521– 1532.
12. Bixby, L. M., and, R. L. Tarleton. 2008. Stable CD8+ T cell memory during persistent Trypanosoma cruzi infection. J. Immunol. 181: 2644– 1250.
13. Blackwell, J. M.,, M. Fakiola,, M. E. Ibrahim,, S. E. Jamieson,, S. B. Jeronimo,, E. N. Miller,, A. Mishra,, H. S. Mohamed,, C. S. Peacock,, M. Raju,, S. Sundar, and, M. E. Wilson. 2009. Genetics and visceral leishmaniasis: of mice and man. Parasite Immunol. 31: 254– 266.
14. Blanchard, N.,, F. Gonzalez,, M. Schaeffer,, N. T. Joncker,, T. Cheng,, A. J. Shastri,, E. A. Robey, and, N. Shastri. 2008. Immunodominant, protective response to the parasite Toxoplasma gondii requires antigen processing in the endoplasmic reticulum. Nat. Immunol. 9: 937– 944.
15. Brindley, P. J., and, E. J. Pearce. 2007. Genetic manipulation of schistosomes. Int. J. Parasitol. 37: 465– 473.
16. Bustamante, J. M.,, L. M. Bixby, and, R. L. Tarleton. 2008. Drug-induced cure drives conversion to a stable and protective CD8+ T central memory response in chronic Chagas disease. Nat. Med. 14: 542– 550.
17. Butterworth, A. E.,, D. W. Dunne,, A. J. Fulford,, K. J. Thorne,, K. Gachuhi,, J. H. Ouma, and, R. F. Sturrock. 1992. Human immunity to Schistosoma mansoni: observations on mechanisms, and implications for control. Immunol. Invest. 21: 391– 407.
18. Castelletto, M. L.,, H. C. Massey, Jr., and, J. B. Lok. 2009. Morphogenesis of Strongyloides stercoralis infective larvae requires the daf-16 ortholog fktf-1. PLoS Pathog. 5: e1000370.
19. Choi, S., and, R. H. Schwartz. 2007. Molecular mechanisms for adaptive tolerance and other T cell anergy models. Semin. Immunol. 19: 140– 152.
20. Chtanova, T.,, S. J. Han,, M. Schaeffer,, G. G. van Dooren,, P. Herzmark,, B. Striepen, and, E. A. Robey. 2009. Dynamics of T cell, antigen-presenting cell, and pathogen interactions during recall responses in the lymph node. Immunity 31: 342– 355.
21. Cooke, A.,, P. Zaccone,, T. Raine,, J. M. Phillips, and, D. W. Dunne. 2004. Infection and autoimmunity: are we winning the war, only to lose the peace? Trends Parasitol. 20: 316– 321.
22. Couper, K. N.,, D. G. Blount, and, E. M. Riley. 2008a. IL-10: the master regulator of immunity to infection. J. Immunol. 180: 5771– 5777.
23. Couper, K. N.,, D. G. Blount,, M. S. Wilson,, J. C. Hafalla,, Y Belkaid,, M. Kamanaka,, R. A. Flavell,, J. B. de Souza, and, E. M. Riley. 2008b. IL-10 from cd4cd25foxp3cd127 adaptive regulatory T cells modulates parasite clearance and pathology during malaria infection. PLoS Pathog. 4: e1000004.
24. Damasceno, J. D., S. M. Beverley, and, L. R. Tosi. 2009. A transposon toolkit for gene transfer and mutagenesis in protozoan parasites. Genetica 138: 301– 311.
25. David, T.,, C. Thomas,, P. Zaccone,, D. W. Dunne, and, A. Cooke. 2004. The impact of infection on the incidence of autoimmune disease. Curr. Top. Med. Chem. 4: 521– 529.
26. Deretic, V., and, B. Levine. 2009. Autophagy, immunity, and microbial adaptations. Cell Host Microbe 5: 527– 549.
27. Descoteaux, A., and, S. J. Turco. 2002. Functional aspects of the Leishmania donovani lipophosphoglycan during macrophage infection. Microbes Infect. 4: 975– 981.
28. Dzierszinski, F. S., and, C. A. Hunter. 2008. Advances in the use of genetically engineered parasites to study immunity to Toxoplasma gondii. Parasite Immunol. 30: 235– 244.
29. Elliott, D. E., and, J. V. Weinstock. 2009. Helminthic therapy: using worms to treat immune-mediated disease. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 666: 157– 166.
30. Everts, B.,, G. Perona-Wright,, H. H. Smits,, C. H. Hokke,, A. J. van der Ham,, C. M. Fitzsimmons,, M. J. Doenhoff,, J. van der Bosch,, K. Mohrs,, H. Haas,, M. Mohrs,, M. Yazdanbakhsh, and, G. Schramm. 2009. Omega-1, a glycoprotein secreted by Schistosoma mansoni eggs, drives Th2 responses. J. Exp. Med. 206: 1673– 1680.
31. Frickel, E. M.,, N. Sahoo,, J. Hopp,, M. J. Gubbels,, M. P. Craver,, L. J. Knoll,, H. L. Ploegh, and, G. M. Grotenbreg. 2008. Parasite stage-specific recognition of endogenous Toxoplasma gondii-derived CD8+ T cell epitopes. J. Infect. Dis. 198: 1625– 1633.
32. Gazzinelli, R. T., and, E. Y. Denkers. 2006. Protozoan encounters with toll-like receptor signalling pathways: implications for host parasitism. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 6: 895– 906.
33. Gazzinelli, R. T.,, M. Wysocka,, S. Hieny,, T. Scharton-Kersten,, A. Cheever,, R. Kuhn,, W. Muller,, G. Trinchieri, and, A. Sher. 1996. In the absence of endogenous IL-10, mice acutely infected with Toxoplasma gondii succumb to a lethal immune response dependent on CD4+ T cells and accompanied by overproduction of IL-12, IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha. J. Immunol. 157: 798– 805.
34. Gigley, J. P.,, B. A. Fox, and, D. J. Bzik. 2009. Long-term immunity to lethal acute or chronic type II Toxoplasma gondii infection is effectively induced in genetically susceptible C57BL/6 mice by immunization with an attenuated type I vaccine strain. Infect. Immun. 77: 5380– 5388.
35. Harnett, M. M.,, A. J. Melendez, and, W. Harnett. 2009. The therapeutic potential of the filarial nematode-derived immunodulator, ES-62 in inflammatory disease. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 159: 256– 267.
36. Harnett, W., and, M. M. Harnett. 2006. Filarial nematode secreted product ES-62 is an anti-inflammatory agent: therapeutic potential of small molecule derivatives and ES-62 peptide mimetics. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 33: 511– 518.
37. Herbert, D. R.,, C. Holscher,, M. Mohrs,, B. Arendse,, A. Schwegmann,, M. Radwanska,, M. Leeto,, R. Kirsch,, P. Hall,, H. Mossmann,, B. Claussen,, I. Forster, and, F. Brombacher. 2004. Alternative macrophage activation is essential for survival during schistosomiasis and downmodulates T helper 1 responses and immunopathology. Immunity 20: 623– 635.
38. Hewitson, J. P.,, J. R. Grainger, and, R. M. Maizels. 2009. Helminth immunoregulation: the role of parasite secreted proteins in modulating host immunity. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 167: 1– 11.
39. Hoerauf, A. 2008. Filariasis: new drugs and new opportunities for lymphatic filariasis and onchocerciasis. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 21: 673– 681.
40. Hotez, P.,, E. Ottesen,, A. Fenwick, and, D. Molyneux. 2006. The neglected tropical diseases: the ancient afflictions of stigma and poverty and the prospects for their control and elimination. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 582: 23– 33.
41. Hotez, P. J.,, M. E. Bottazzi,, C. Franco-Paredes,, S. K. Ault, and, M. R. Periago. 2008a. The neglected tropical diseases of Latin America and the Caribbean: a review of disease burden and distribution and a roadmap for control and elimination. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2: e300.
42. Hotez, P. J.,, P. J. Brindley,, J. M. Bethony,, C. H. King,, E. J. Pearce, and, J. Jacobson. 2008b. Helminth infections: the great neglected tropical diseases. J. Clin. Invest. 118: 1311– 1321.
43. Hotez,, P. J., and, A. Fenwick. 2009. Schistosomiasis in africa: an emerging tragedy in our new global health decade. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 3: e485.
44. Hotez, P. J., and, A. Kamath. 2009. Neglected tropical diseases in sub-Saharan Africa: review of their prevalence, distribution, and disease burden. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 3: e412.
45. Jankovic, D.,, M. C. Kullberg,, C. G. Feng,, R. S. Goldszmid,, C. M. Collazo,, M. Wilson,, T. A. Wynn,, M. Kamanaka,, R. A. Flavell, and, A. Sher. 2007. Conventional T-bet+Foxp3-Th1 cells are the major source of host-protective regulatory IL-10 during intracellular protozoan infection. J. Exp. Med. 204: 273– 283.
46. Kane, C. M.,, L. Cervi,, J. Sun,, A. S. McKee,, K. S. Masek,, S. Shapira,, C. A. Hunter, and, E. J. Pearce. 2004. Helminth antigens modulate TLR-initiated dendritic cell activation. J. Immunol. 173: 7454– 7461.
47. Kedzierski, L.,, J. M. Curtis,, P. C. Doherty,, E. Handman, and, K. Kedzierska. 2008. Decreased IL-10 and IL-13 production and increased CD44HI T cell recruitment contribute to Leishmania major immunity induced by non-persistent parasites. Eur. J. Immunol. 38: 3090– 3100.
48. Kreider, T.,, R. M. Anthony,, J. F. Urban, Jr., and, W. C. Gause. 2007. Alternatively activated macrophages in helminth infections. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 19: 448– 453.
49. Kumar, K. A.,, G. Sano,, S. Boscardin,, R. S. Nussenzweig,, M. C. Nussenzweig,, F. Zavala, and, V. Nussenzweig. 2006. The circumsporozoite protein is an immunodominant protective antigen in irradiated sporozoites. Nature 444: 937– 940.
50. Kuntz, A. N.,, E. Davioud-Charvet,, A. A. Sayed,, L. L. Califf,, J. Dessolin,, E. S. Arner, and, D. L. Williams. 2007. Thioredoxin glutathione reductase from Schistosoma mansoni: an essential parasite enzyme and a key drug target. PLoS Med. 4: e206.
51. Laliberte, J., and, V. B. Carruthers. 2008. Host cell manipulation by the human pathogen Toxoplasma gondii. Cell Mol. Life Sci. 65: 1900– 1915.
52. Lok, J. B., and, D. Artis. 2008. Transgenesis and neuronal ablation in parasitic nematodes: revolutionary new tools to dissect host-parasite interactions. Parasite Immunol. 30: 203– 214.
53. Loke, P.,, I. Gallagher,, M. G. Nair,, X. Zang,, F. Brombacher,, M. Mohrs,, J. P. Allison, and, J. E. Allen. 2007. Alternative activation is an innate response to injury that requires CD4+ T cells to be sustained during chronic infection. J. Immunol. 179: 3926– 3936.
54. Luder, C. G.,, R. R. Stanway,, M. Chaussepied,, G. Langsley, and, V. T. Heussler. 2009. Intracellular survival of apicomplexan parasites and host cell modification. Int. J. Parasitol. 39: 163– 173.
55. Maizels, R. M., and, M. Yazdanbakhsh. 2008. T-cell regulation in helminth parasite infections: implications for inflammatory diseases. Chem. Immunol. Allergy 94: 112– 23.
56. Martin, D. L.,, D. B. Weatherly,, S. A. Laucella,, M. A. Cabinian,, M. T. Crim,, S. Sullivan,, M. Heiges,, S. H. Craven,, C. S. Rosenberg,, M. H. Collins,, A. Sette,, M. Postan, and, R. L. Tarleton. 2006. Cd8+ T-cell responses to Trypanosoma cruzi are highly focused on strain-variant trans-sialidase epitopes. PLoS Pathog. 2: e77.
57. McCoy, K. D.,, M. Stoel,, R. Stettler,, P. Merky,, K. Fink,, B. M. Senn,, C. Schaer,, J. Massacand,, B. Odermatt,, H. C. Oettgen,, R. M. Zinkernagel,, N. A. Bos,, H. Hengartner,, A. J. Macpherson, and, N. L. Harris. 2008. Polyclonal and specific antibodies mediate protective immunity against enteric helminth infection. Cell Host Microbe 4: 362– 373.
58. McGeachy, M. J.,, K. S. Bak-Jensen,, Y. Chen,, C. M. Tato,, W. Blumenschein,, T. McClanahan, and, D. J. Cua. 2007. TGF-beta and IL-6 drive the production of IL-17 and IL-10 by T cells and restrain T(h)-17 cell-mediated pathology. Nat. Immunol. 8: 1390– 139.
59. Nair, M. G.,, Y. Du,, J. G. Perrigoue,, C. Zaph,, J. J. Taylor,, M. Goldschmidt,, G. P. Swain,, G. D. Yancopoulos,, D. M. Valenzuela,, A. Murphy,, M. Karow,, S. Stevens,, E. J. Pearce, and, D. Artis. 2009. Alternatively activated macrophage-derived relm-a is a negative regulator of type 2 inflammation in the lung. J. Exp. Med. 206: 937– 952.
60. Nair, M. G.,, K. J. Guild, and, D. Artis. 2006. Novel effector molecules in type 2 inflammation: lessons drawn from helminth infection and allergy. J. Immunol. 177: 1393– 1399.
61. O’Connell, A. E.,, L. A. Kerepesi,, G. L. Vandergrift,, D. R. Herbert,, V. A. N. W. TJ,, D. C. Hooper,, E. J. Pearce, and, D. Abraham. 2009. IL-4(-/-) mice with lethal Mesocestoides corti infections—reduced Th2 cytokines and alternatively activated macrophages. Parasite Immunol. 31: 741– 749.
62. Ong, E. L. 2008. Common AIDS-associated opportunistic infections. Clin. Med. 8: 539– 543.
63. Pays, E., and, B. Vanhollebeke. 2008. Mutual self-defence: the trypanolytic factor story. Microbes Infect. 10: 985– 989.
64. Pearce, E. J., and, T. C. Freitas. 2008. Reverse genetics and the study of the immune response to schistosomes. Parasite Immunol. 30: 215– 221.
65. Pearce, E. J., and, A. S. MacDonald. 2002. The immunobiology of schistosomiasis. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2: 499– 511.
66. Pearce, E. J., and, A. Sher. 1987. Mechanisms of immune evasion in schistosomiasis. Contrib. Microbiol. Immunol. 8: 219– 232.
67. Perrigoue, J. G.,, S. A. Saenz,, M. C. Siracusa,, E. J. Allenspach,, B. C. Taylor,, P. R. Giacomin,, M. G. Nair,, Y. Du,, C. Zaph,, N. van Rooijen,, M. R. Comeau,, E. J. Pearce,, T. M. Laufer, and, D. Artis. 2009. MHC class II-dependent basophil-Cd4+ T cell interactions promote T(H)2 cytokine-dependent immunity. Nat. Immunol. 10: 697– 705.
68. Peters, N. C., and, D. L. Sacks. 2009. The impact of vectormediated neutrophil recruitment on cutaneous leishmaniasis. Cell Microbiol. 11: 1290– 1296.
69. Pinzon-Charry, A., and, M. F. Good. 2008. Malaria vaccines: the case for a whole-organism approach. Expert Opin. Biol. Ther. 8: 441– 448.
70. Raether, W., and, H. Hanel. 2003. Epidemiology, clinical manifestations and diagnosis of zoonotic cestode infections: an update. Parasitol Res. 91: 412– 438.
71. Reese, T. A.,, H. E. Liang,, A. M. Tager,, A. D. Luster,, N. Van Rooijen,, D. Voehringer, and, R. M. Locksley. 2007. Chitin induces accumulation in tissue of innate immune cells associated with allergy. Nature 447: 92– 96.
72. Rutitzky, L. I.,, J. R. Lopes da Rosa, and, M. J. Stadecker. 2005. Severe Cd4 T cell-mediated immunopathology in murine schistosomiasis is dependent on IL-12p40 and correlates with high levels of IL-17. J. Immunol. 175: 3920– 3926.
73. Sacks, D., and, C. Anderson. 2004. Re-examination of the immunosuppressive mechanisms mediating non-cure of leishmania infection in mice. Immunol. Rev. 201: 225– 238.
74. Sacks, D., and, N. Noben-Trauth. 2002. The immunology of susceptibility and resistance to Leishmania major in mice. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2: 845– 858.
75. Sacks, D. L.,, A. Sher,, E. M. Riley, and, T. A. Wynn. 2008. The immune response to parasites, p. 1097–1120. In W. E. Paul (ed.), Fundamental Immunology. Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA.
76. Sano, G.,, J. C. Hafalla,, A. Morrot,, R. Abe,, J. J. Lafaille, and, F. Zavala. 2001. Swift development of protective effector functions in naive Cd8(+) T cells against malaria liver stages. J. Exp. Med. 194: 173– 180.
77. Scherf, A.,, J. J. Lopez-Rubio, and, L. Riviere. 2008. Antigenic variation in Plasmodium falciparum. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 62: 445– 470.
78. Schopf, L. R.,, K. F. Hoffmann,, A. W. Cheever,, J. F. Urban, Jr., and, T. A. Wynn. 2002. IL-10 is critical for host resistance and survival during gastrointestinal helminth infection. J. Immunol. 168: 2383– 2392.
79. Selvapandiyan, A.,, R. Dey,, S. Nylen,, R. Duncan,, D. Sacks, and, H. L. Nakhasi. 2009. Intracellular replication-deficient Leishmania donovani induces long lasting protective immunity against visceral leishmaniasis. J. Immunol. 183: 1813– 1820.
80. Sibley, L. D.,, A. Khan,, J. W. Ajioka, and, B. M. Rosenthal. 2009a. Genetic diversity of Toxoplasma gondii in animals and humans. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Land. B. Biol. Sci. 364: 2749– 2761.
81. Sibley, L. D.,, W. Qiu,, S. Fentress,, S. J. Taylor,, A. Khan, and, R. Hui. 2009b. Forward genetics in Toxoplasma gondii reveals a family of rhoptry kinases that mediates pathogenesis. Eukaryot. Cell 8: 1085– 1093.
82. Smithers, S. R., and, R. J. Terry. 1976. The immunology of schistosomiasis. Adv. Parasitol. 14: 399– 422.
83. Steinfelder, S.,, J. F. Anderson,, J. L. Cannons,, C. G. Feng,, N. Joshi,, D. Dwyer,, P. Caspar,, P. L. Schwartzberg,, A. Sher, and, D. Jankovic. 2009. The major component in schistosome eggs responsible for conditioning dendritic cells for Th2 polarization is a T2 ribonuclease (omega-1). J. Exp. Med. 206: 1681– 1690.
84. Stuart, K.,, R. Brun,, S. Croft,, A. Fairlamb,, R. E. Gurtler,, J. McKerrow,, S. Reed, and, R. Tarleton. 2008. Kinetoplastids: related protozoan pathogens, different diseases. J. Clin. Invest. 118: 1301– 1310.
85. Stumhofer, J. S., and, C. A. Hunter. 2008. Advances in understanding the anti-inflammatory properties of IL-27. Immunol. Lett. 117: 123– 130.
86. Stumhofer, J. S.,, J. S. Silver,, A. Laurence,, P. M. Porrett,, T. H. Harris,, L. A. Turka,, M. Ernst,, C. J. Saris,, J. J. O’Shea, and, C. A. Hunter. 2007. Interleukins 27 and 6 induce stat3-mediated T cell production of interleukin 10. Nat. Immunol. 8: 1363– 1371.
87. Tarleton, R. L. 2007. Immune system recognition of Trypanosoma cruzi. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 19: 430– 434.
88. Taylor, J. E., and, G. Rudenko. 2006. Switching trypanosome coats: what’s in the wardrobe? Trends Genet. 22: 614– 620.
89. Taylor, J. J.,, C. M. Krawczyk,, M. Mohrs, and, E. J. Pearce. 2009. Th2 cell hyporesponsiveness during chronic murine schistosomiasis is cell intrinsic and linked to grail expression. J. Clin. Invest. 119: 1019– 1028.
90. Taylor, M. D.,, A. Harris,, M. G. Nair,, R. M. Maizels, and, J. E. Allen. 2006. F4/80+ alternatively activated macrophages control Cd4+ T cell hyporesponsiveness at sites peripheral to filarial infection. J. Immunol. 176: 6918– 6927.
91. Taylor, M. D.,, L. LeGoff,, A. Harris,, E. Malone,, J. E. Allen, and, R. M. Maizels. 2005. Removal of regulatory T cell activity reverses hyporesponsiveness and leads to filarial parasite clearance in vivo. J. Immunol. 174: 4924– 4933.
92. Tsuji, M.,, E. G. Rodrigues, and, S. Nussenzweig. 2001. Progress toward a malaria vaccine: efficient induction of protective antimalaria immunity. Biol. Chem. 382: 553– 570.
93. Voehringer, D.,, K. Shinkai, and, R. M. Locksley. 2004. Type 2 immunity reflects orchestrated recruitment of cells committed to IL-4 production. Immunity 20: 267– 277.
94. Wilson, M. S.,, M. D. Taylor,, A. Balic,, C. A. Finney,, J. R. Lamb, and, R. M. Maizels. 2005. Suppression of allergic airway inflammation by helminth-induced regulatory T cells. J. Exp. Med. 202: 1199– 212.
95. Wipasa, J., and, E. M. Riley. 2007. The immunological challenges of malaria vaccine development. Expert Opin. Biol. Ther. 7: 1841– 1852.
96. Wynn, T. A. 2004. Fibrotic disease and the T(h)11/T(h)2 paradigm. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 4: 583– 594.
97. Xu, D.,, C. P. Brandan,, M. A. Basombrio, and, R. L. Tarleton. 2009. Evaluation of high efficiency gene knockout strategies for Trypanosoma cruzi. BMC Microbiol. 9: 90.
98. Yarovinsky, F.,, H. Kanzler,, S. Hieny,, R. L. Coffman, and, A. Sher. 2006. Toll-like receptor recognition regulates immunodominance in an antimicrobial Cd4+ T cell response. Immunity 25: 655– 664.
99. Yeoh, S.,, R. A. O’Donnell,, K. Koussis,, A. R. Dluzewski,, K. H. Ansell,, S. A. Osborne,, F. Hackett,, C. Withers-Martinez,, G. H. Mitchell,, L. H. Bannister,, J. S. Bryans,, C. A. Kettleborough, and, M. J. Blackman. 2007. Subcellular discharge of a serine protease mediates release of invasive malaria parasites from host erythrocytes. Cell 131: 1072– 1083.

Back to top
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Please check the format of the address you have entered.
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error