Recurrent Emergence of Venezuelan Equine Encephalomyelitis

Scott C. Weaver

doi:10.1128/9781555816940.ch3

Chapter 3 : Recurrent Emergence of Venezuelan Equine Encephalomyelitis

VIEW AFFILIATIONS HIDE AFFILIATIONS

Affiliations: 1: Center for Tropical Diseases and Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555•0609

Content Type: Monograph

Publication Year: 1998

Category: Clinical Microbiology

Book DOI: 10.1128/9781555816940

Chapter DOI: 10.1128/9781555816940.ch3

MyBook is a cheap paperback edition of the original book and will be sold at uniform, low price.

Preview this chapter:

Recurrent Emergence of Venezuelan Equine Encephalomyelitis, Page 1 of 2

< Previous page | Next page > /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555816940/9781555811211_Chap03-1.gif /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555816940/9781555811211_Chap03-2.gif

Abstract:

Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis (VEE) viruses are positive-strand, unsegmented RNA viruses in the genus Alphavirus of the family Togaviridae. The first phylogenetic analyses of the VEE complex, based on partial nsP4, El, and 3' untranslated sequences, indicated that IAB, IC, and ID viruses are closely related and have a recent common ancestor. This work also suggested that epidemic/epizootic VEE viruses evolved from ID progenitors on more than one occasion. Several hypotheses for VEE emergence were proposed, including (i) maintenance of IAB and/or IC viruses in continuous, cryptic transmission cycles; (ii) maintenance of IAB and/or IC viruses in latent equine or other animal infections; (iii) reemergence of epizootic viruses following administration of incompletely inactivated vaccine preparations; (iv) maintenance of IAB and/or IC viruses as minority subpopulations within enzootic virus populations; and (v) periodic emergence of epizootic viruses via mutations of enzootic strains. Phylogenetic studies of the two recent, northern South American VEE outbreaks have further supported the hypothesis of evolution and emergence of epidemic/epizootic IAB/IC viruses from enzootic ID-like progenitors. Current phylogenetic trees, obtained from reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction products of 857 nucleotides derived from the E3 and E2 genes, identify three distinct monophyletic groups or lineages of epizootic/ epidemic VEE viruses. The most important gaps remaining in one's understanding of epidemic/epizootic VEE emergence concern the viral determinants of virulence and the pathogenesis changes that lead to high-viremia-facilitated transmission among equines and other large mammals.

Citation: Weaver S. 1998. Recurrent Emergence of Venezuelan Equine Encephalomyelitis, p 27-42. In Scheld W, Armstrong D, Hughes J (ed), Emerging Infections 1. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555816940.ch3

Highlighted Text: Show | Hide

Full text loading...

Figures

Recurrent Emergence of Venezuelan Equine Encephalomyelitis

[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555816940.chap3-1,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555816940.chap3-1,properties={foaf_givenname=Scott C., foaf_name=Scott C. Weaver, foaf_surname=Weaver, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555816940.chap3-aff1]]}]]

/content/10.1128/9781555816940.chap3.fig3-1

Figure 1.

Map showing the locations of major VEE outbreaks.

10.1128/9781555816940/fig3-1_thmb.gif

10.1128/9781555816940/fig3-1.gif

Figure 1.

Map showing the locations of major VEE outbreaks.

/content/10.1128/9781555816940.chap3.fig3-3

Figure 3.

Cartoon depicting the enzootic and epidemic/epizootic transmission cycles of VEE viruses. Links between the cycles show hypothetical mechanisms of VEE emergence.

10.1128/9781555816940/fig3-3_thmb.gif

10.1128/9781555816940/fig3-3.gif

Figure 3.

Cartoon depicting the enzootic and epidemic/epizootic transmission cycles of VEE viruses. Links between the cycles show hypothetical mechanisms of VEE emergence.

/content/10.1128/9781555816940.chap3.fig3-2

Figure 2.

Phylogenetic tree, derived by maximum parsimony ( 20 , 54 ), showing relationships among epidemic/epizootic and enzootic; isolates of VEE viruses. The tree was generated from an E3-E2 sequence region of 817 nucleotides described previously ( 62 ) and was rooted by using homologous sequences of other VEE subtypes. Strains are listed by abbreviated country or State (USA) and year of isolation, followed by the strain designation. Branch shading indicates hypothetical phenotype (epizootic or enzootic) of ancestral lineages, based on minimizing phenotypic change in the tree. Numbers at nodes indicate bootstrap values for groups to the right.

10.1128/9781555816940/fig3-2_thmb.gif

10.1128/9781555816940/fig3-2.gif

Figure 2.

References

/content/book/10.1128/9781555816940.chap3

1. Aitken, T. H. G. 1972. Habits of some mosquito hosts of VEE (Mucambo) virus from northeastern South America, including Trinidad. p. 254– 256. In Proceedings of the Workshop-Symposium on Venezuelan Encephalitis Virus. Scientific Publication no. 243. Pan American Health Organization. Washington. D.C.

2. Beck, C. K,,and R. W. G. Wyckoff. 1938. Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis. Science 88: 530.

3. Bowen, G. S.,, and C. H. Calisher. 1976. Virological and serological studies of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis in humans. J. Clin. Microbial. 4: 22– 27.

4. Briceno Rossi, A. L. 1967. Rural epidemic encephalitis in Venezuela caused by a group A arbovirus (VEE). Progr. Med. Viral. 9: 176– 203.

5. Calisher, C.,, R. Kinney,, O. de Souza Lopes,, D. Trent,, T. Monath,, and D. Francy. 1982. Identification of a new Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus from Brazil. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 31: 1260– 1272.

6. Calisher, C. H.,, and N. Karabatsos,. 1988. Arbovirus serogroups: definition and geographic distribution, p. 19– 57. In T. P. Monath (ed.), The Arboviruses: Epidemiology and Ecology, vol.1. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla.

7. Calisher, C. H ., T. P. Monath,, C. J. Mitchell,, M. S. Sabattini,, C. B. Cropp,, J. Kerschner,, A. R. Hunt,, and J. S. Lazuick. 1985. Arbovirus investigations in Argentina, 1977- 1980. III. Identification and characterization of viruses isolated, including new subtypes of western and Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses and four new bunyaviruses (Las Maloyas, Resistencia, Barranqueras and Antequera). Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 34: 956– 965.

8. Causey, O. R.,, C. E. Causey,, O. M. Maroja,, and D. G. Macedo. 1961. The isolation of arthropodborne viruses. including members of hitherto undescribed serological groups, in the Amazon region of Brazi l. Am. J. Trap. Med. Hyg. 10: 227– 249.

9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1995. Update: Venezuelan equine encephalitis-Colombia 1995. Morbid. Mortal. Weekly Rep. 44: 775– 777.

10. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1995. Venezuelan equine encephalitis-Colombia. 1995. Morbid. Mortal. Weekly Rep. 44: 721– 724.

11. Chamberlain, R. W.,, W. D. Sudia,, P. H. Coleman,, and T. H. Work. 1964. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus from south Florida. Science 145: 272– 274.

12. Chamberlain, R. W.,, W. D. Sudia,, T. H. Work,, P. H. Coleman,, V. F. Newhouse,, and J. J. G. Johnston. 1969. Arbovirus studies in south Florida, with emphasis on Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus. Am. J. Epidemiol. 89: 197– 210.

13. Cupp, E. W.,, W. F. Scherer,, and J. V. Ordonez. 1979. Transmission of Venezuelan encephalitis virus by naturally infected Culex (Melallocanion) opisthopus. Am. J. Trap. Med. Hyg. 28: 1060– 1063.

14. Davis, N. L.,, K. W. Brown,, G. F. Greenwald,, A. J. Zajac,, V. L. Zacny,, J. F. Smith,, and R. E. Johnston. 1995. Attenuated mutants of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus containing lethal mu lations in the PE2 cleavage signal combined with a second-site suppressor mutation in El. Virology 212: 102– 110.

15. Davis, N. L.,, F. B. Grieder,, J. F. Smith,. G. F. Greenwald,, M. L. Valenski,, D. C. Sellon,, P. C. Charles,, and R. E. Johnston. 1994. A molecular genetic approach to the study of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus pathogenesis. Arch. Virol. 9: 99– 109.

16. de la Monte, S. M.,, F. Castro,, N. J. Bonilla,, A. G. deUrdaneta,, and G. M. Hutchins. 1985. The systemic pathology of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus infection in humans. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 34: 194– 202.

17. Dickerman, R. W.,, E. W. Cupp,, H. Groot,, A. M. Alarcon,, E. Cura,, A. W. Dickerman,, A. L. Ibagos,, R. Rico-Hesse, C. A. Taylor,, and S. C. Weaver. 1986. Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus activity in northern Colombia during April and May 1983. PAHO Bull. 20: 276– 283.

18. Downs, W.,, L. Spence,, and T. H. G. Aitken. 1962. Studies on the virus of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis in Trinidad. W.I. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 11: 841– 843.

19. Escalana, A. S.,, L. T. Finol,, and S. Ryder. 1969. Estudio de un brote de encefalitis venezolana en el distrito Paez. Estado Zulia. en octubre de 1968. Invest. Clin. 31: 45– 57.

20. Felsenstein, J. 1993. PHYLIP (Phylogeny Inference Package) version 3.5p. Distributed by the author. Department of Genetics. University of Washington, Seattle.

21. Franck, P. T.,, and K. M. Johnson. 1970. An outbreak of Venezuelan encephalitis in man in the Panama Canal Zone. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 19: 860– 865.

22. Galindo, P. 1972. Endemic vectQrs of Venezuelan encephalitis, p. 249– 253. In Proceedings of the Workshop-Symposium on Venezuelan Encephalitis Virus. Scientific Publication no. 243. Pan American Health Organization, Washington, D.C.

23. Galindo, P.,, and M. A. Grayson. 1971. Culex (Melanoconion) aikeni: natural vector in Panama of endemic Venezuelan encephalitis. Science 172: 594– 595.

24. Graf, R.,, and H. Briegel. 1982. Comparison between aminopeptidase and trypsin activity in blood-fed females of Aedes aegypri. Rev. Suisse Zool. 89: 845– 850.

25. Grieder, F. B.,, N. L. Davis,, J. F. Aronson,, P. C. Charles,, D. C. Sellon,, K. Suzuki,, and R. E. Johnston. 1995. Specific restrictions in the progression of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virusinduced disease resulting from single amino acid changes in the glycoproteins. Virology 206: 994– 1006.

26. Holland, J. J.,, J. C. de la Torre,, and D. Steinhauer. 1992. RNA virus populations as quasispecies. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 176: 1– 20.

27. Jahrling, P. B.,, and W. F. Scherer. 1973. Histopathology and distribution of viral antigens in hamsters infected with virulent and benign Venezuelan encephalitis viruses. Am. J. Pathol. 72: 25– 38.

28. Johnson, K. M.,, and D. H. Martin. 1974. Venezuelan equine encephalitis. Adv. Vet. Sci. Compo Med. 18: 79– 116.

29. Johnson, K. M.,, A. Shelokov,, P. H. Peralta,, G. J. Dammin,, and N. A. Young. 1968. Recovery of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus in Panama. A fatal case in man. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 17: 432– 440.

30. Karabatsos, N. (ed.). 1985. Intemational Catalog of Arboviruses Including Certain Other Viruses of Vertebrates, 4th ed. American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. San Antonio, Tex.

31. Kinney, R- M.,, B. J. B. Johnson,, J. B. Welch,, K. R. Tsuchiya,, and D. W. Trent. 1989. Full-length nucleotide sequences of the virulent Trinidad donkey strain of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus and its attenuated derivative. strain TC83. Virology 170: 19– 31.

32. Kinney, R. M.,, D. W. Trent,, and J. K. France. 1983. Comparative immunochemical and biochemical analyses of viruses in the Venezuelan equine encephalitis complex. J. Gen. Virol. 64: 135– 147.

33. Kinney, R. M.,, K. R. Tsuchiya,, J. M. Sneider,, and D. W. TrenL 1992. Genetic evidence that epizootic Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) viruses may have evolved from enzootic VEE subtype I-D virus. Virology 191: 569– 580.

34. Kinney, R. M.,, K. R. Tsuchiya,, J. M. Sneider,, and D. W. Trent. 1992. Molecular evidence for the origin of the widespread Venezuelan equine encephalitis epizootic of 1969-1972. J. Gen. Virol. 73: 3301– 3305.

35. Kramer, L. D.,, and W. F. Scherer. 1976. Vector competence of mosquitoes as a marker to distinguish Central American and Mexican epizootic from enzootic strains of Venezuelan encephalitis virus. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 25: 336– 346.

36. Kubes, V.,, and F. A. Rios. 1939. The causative agent of infectious equine encephalomyelitis in Venezuela. Science 90: 20– 2 J.

37. Martin, D. H.,, G. A. Eddy,, W. D. Sudia,, W. C. Reeves,, V. F. Newhouse,, and K. M. Johnson. 1972. An epidemiologic study of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis in Costa Rica. 1970. Am. J. Epidemiol. 95: 565– 578.

38. Monath, T. P.,, J. S. Lazuick,, C. B. Cropp,, W. A. Rush,, C. H. Calisher,, R. M. Kinney,, D. W. Trent,, G. E. Kemp,, G. S. Bowen,, and D. B. Francy. 1980. Recovery of Tonate virus ("Bijou Bridge" strain), a member of the Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus complex, from cliff swallow nest bugs (Oeciacus vicarius) and nestling birds in North America. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 29: 969– 983.

39. Pittman, P. R.,, R. S. Makuch,, J. A. Mangiafico,, T. L. Cannon,, P. H. Gibbs,, and C. J. Peters. 1996. Long-term duration of detectable neutralizing antibodies after administration of live-attenuated VEE vaccine and following booster vaccination with inactivated vaccine. Vaccine 14: 337– 343.

40. Rico-Hesse, R.,, J. T. Roehrig,, D. W. Trent,, and R. W. Dickerman. 1988. Genetic variation of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus strains of the ID variety in Colombia. Am. J. Trap. Med. Hyg. 38: 195– 204.

41. Rico-Hesse, R.,, S. C. Weaver,, J. D. Siger,, G. Medina,, and R. A. Salas. 1995. Emergence of a new epidemic /epizootic Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus in South America. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92: 5278– 5281.

42. Sanmartin, C.,, R. B. Mackenzie,, H. Trapido,, P. Barreto,, C. H. Mullenax,, E. Guteirrez,, and C. Lessnes. 1967. Encefalitis equina venezolana en Colombia, 1967. Bol. Of Sallit. Panam. 74: 108– 137.

43. Sanmartin-Barberi, C.,, and E. Osorno.Mesa. 1954. Human epidemic in Colombia caused by the Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 3: 283– 291.

44. Scherer, W. F.,, and J. Chin. 1977. Responses of guinea pigs to infections with strains of Venezuelan encephalitis virus, and correlations with equine virulence. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 26: 307– 312.

45. Scherer, W. F.,, J. Chin,, and J. V. Ordonez. 1979. Further observations on infections of guinea pigs with Venezuelan encephalitis virus strains. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 28: 725– 728.

46. Scherer, W. F.,, R. W. Dickerman,, C. W. Chia,, A. Ventura,, A. Moorhouse,, R. Geiger,, and A. Diaz-Najera. 1963. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus in Veracruz. Mexico, and the use of hamsters as sentinels. Science 145: 274– 275 .

47. Scherer, W. F.,, R. W. Dickerman,, E. K. Jordan,, S. Saidi,, M. L. Zarate,, and A. K. Ventura. 1971. Ecologic studies of Venezuelan encephalitis virus in southeastern Mexico. II. Prevalence and geographic and temporal distribution of virus measured by sentinel hamslers and mice. Am. J. Trap. Med. Hyg. 20: 740– 753.

48. Scherer, W. F.,, S. C. Weaver,, C. A. Taylor,, and E. W. Cupp. 1986. Vector incompetency: its implication in the disappearance of epizootic Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus from Middle America. J. Med. Entomol. 23: 23– 29.

49. Shope, R. E.,, O. R. Causey,, A. Homobono Paes de Andrade,, and M. Theiler. 1964. The Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis complex of group A arthropod-borne viruses, including Mucambo and Pixuna from the Amazon region of Brazil. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 13: 723– 727.

50. Stanick, D. R.,, M. E. Wiebe,, and W. F. Scherer. 1985. Markers of Venezuelan encephalitis virus which distinguish enzootic strains of subtype J-D from those of I-E. Am. J. Epidemioi. 122: 234– 244.

51. Sudia, D. 1972. Arthropod vectors of epidemic Venezuelan equine encephalitis. p. 157– 161. In Proceedings of the Workshop-Symposium on Venezuelan Encephalitis Virus. Scientific Publication no. 243. Pan American Health Organization, Washington. D.C.

52. Sudia, W. D.,, V. F. Newhouse,, L. D. Beadle,, D. L. Miller,, J. G. Johnston, Jr.,, R. Young,, C. H. Calisher,, and K. Maness. 1975. Epidemic Venezuelan equine encephalitis in North America in 1971: vector studies. Am. J. Epidemiol. 101: 17– 35.

53. Sutton, L. S.,, and C. C. Brooke. 1954. Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis due to vaccination in man. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 155: 1473– 1476.

54. Swofford, D. L. 1991. PAUP: Phylogenetic Analysis Using Parsimony. version 3.0. Illinois Natural History Survey, Champaign.

55. Walder, R.,, and O. M. Suarez. 1976. Studies of arboviruses in southwestern Venezuela. I. Isolations of Venezuelan and eastern equine encephalitis viruses from sentinel hamsters in the Catatumbo region. Int. J. Epidemiol. 5: 375– 384.

56. Walder, R.,, O. M. Suarez,, and C. H. Calisher. 1984. Arbovirus studies in southwestern Venezuela during 1973-1981. II. Isolations and further studies of Venezuelan and eastern equine encephalitis, Una, Itaqui, and Moju vi ruses. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 33: 483– 491.

57. Walder, R.,, O. M. Suarez,, and C. H. Calisher. 1984. Arbovirus studies in the Guajira region of Venezuela: activities of eastern equine encephalitis and Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses during an interepizootic period. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 33: 699– 707.

58. Walton, T. E.,, O. Alvarez,, R. M. Buckwalter,, and K. M. Johnson. 1973. Experimental infection of horses with enzootic and epizootic strains of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus. J. Infect. Dis. 128: 271– 282.

59. Walton, T. E.,, and M. A. Grayson,. 1988. Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis. p. 203– 233. In T. P. Monath (ed.), The Arboviruses: Epidemiology and Ecology, vol. IV CRC Press, Boca Raton. Fla.

60. Weaver, S. c.,, L. A. Bellew,, L. A. Goussel,, P. A. Repik,, T. W. Scott,, and J. J. Holland. 1993. Diversity within natural populations of eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus. Virology 195: 700– 709.

61. Weaver, S. C.,, L. A. Bellew,, and R. Rico-Hesse. 1992. Phylogenetic analysis of alphaviruses in the Venezuelan equine encephalitis complex and identification of the source of epizootic viruses. Virology 191: 282– 290.

62. Weaver, S. C.,, R. Salas,, R. Rico-Hesse,, G. V. Ludwig,, M. S. Oberste,, J. Boshell,, and R. B. Tesh. 1996. Re-emergence of epidemic Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis in South America. Lancet 348: 436– 440.

63. WeBver, S. C.,, W. F. Scherer,, E. W. Cupp,, and D. A. Castello. 1984. Barriers to dissemination of Venezuelan encephalitis viruses in the Middle American enzootic vector mosquito, Culex (Melanocol/ ion) taenioplIs. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 33: 953– 960.

64. Young, N. A.,, and K. M. Johnson. 1969. Antigenic variants of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus: their geographic distribution and epidemiologic significance. Am. J. Epidemiol. 89: 286– 307.

Tables

Recurrent Emergence of Venezuelan Equine Encephalomyelitis

/content/10.1128/9781555816940.chap3.tab3-1

Table 1.

VEE antigenic complex viruses

10.1128/9781555816940/tab3-1_thmb.gif

10.1128/9781555816940/tab3-1.gif

Table 1.

VEE antigenic complex viruses