1887

Chapter 32 : Tuberculosis Associated with HIV Infection

Authors: Midori Kato-Maeda1, Annie Luetkemeyer2, Peter M. Small3
VIEW AFFILIATIONS HIDE AFFILIATIONS
Affiliations: 1: San Francisco General Hospital, University of California San Francisco, Francis J. Curry National Tuberculosis Center, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, 1001 Potrero Ave., Building 100, Room 109, Mailbox 0841, San Francisco, CA 94110; 2: San Francisco General Hospital, University of California San Francisco, HIV/AIDS Division, 995 Potrero Ave., Box 0874, San Francisco, CA 94110; 3: Institute for Systems Biology, 1441 N. 34th St., Seattle, WA 98103-8904
Content Type: Monograph
Publication Year: 2011

Category: Clinical Microbiology; Bacterial Pathogenesis

MyBook is a cheap paperback edition of the original book and will be sold at uniform, low price.

Preview this chapter:
Preview Magnify
Zoom in
Zoomout

Tuberculosis Associated with HIV Infection, Page 1 of 2

| /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555817138/9781555815134_Chap32-1.gif /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555817138/9781555815134_Chap32-2.gif

Abstract:

Tuberculosis and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection are two major global public health threats that undermine the development of societies because of their high morbidity and mortality. This chapter reviews the pathogenesis of the coinfection of HIV and (MTB), the epidemiology, and the clinical aspects of tuberculosis associated with HIV infection. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) greatly reduces the risk of tuberculosis in HIV infection, but it appears that in most populations, even after effective treatment with ART, the risk of tuberculosis is still on average 5- to 10- fold higher than in the HIV- uninfected population. Due to the high frequency of coinfection of MTB and HIV, all patients infected with HIV should be screened for latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) and tuberculosis. Also, all patients with tuberculosis should be advised to undergo voluntary counseling and testing for HIV infection. Rifabutin is the least powerful inducer and recommended for the treatment of tuberculosis in patients with HIV infection, especially if protease inhibitors are required to treat HIV. The interaction of rifampin and rifabutin with approved antiretroviral drugs is summarized in the chapter. It is remarkable how difficult it has been to control the epidemic of tuberculosis, a curable disease. HIV is the most important factor contributing to the increase of cases of tuberculosis, but tuberculosis is both preventable and treatable even in persons with HIV infection. We need to accelerate the development of new diagnostic tools, new antituberculosis drugs, and a new effective vaccine.

Citation: Kato-Maeda M, Luetkemeyer A, Small P. 2011. Tuberculosis Associated with HIV Infection, p 481-497. In Schlossberg D (ed), Tuberculosis and Nontuberculous Mycobacterial Infections, Sixth Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555817138.ch32
Highlighted Text: Show | Hide
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

Figures

Tuberculosis Associated with HIV Infection
[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555817138.ch32-1,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555817138.ch32-1,properties={foaf_givenname=Midori, foaf_name=Midori Kato-Maeda, foaf_surname=Kato-Maeda, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555817138.ch32-aff1]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555817138.ch32-2,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555817138.ch32-2,properties={foaf_givenname=Annie, foaf_name=Annie Luetkemeyer, foaf_surname=Luetkemeyer, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555817138.ch32-aff2]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555817138.ch32-3,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555817138.ch32-3,properties={foaf_givenname=Peter M., foaf_name=Peter M. Small, foaf_surname=Small, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555817138.ch32-aff3]]}]]
Citation: Kato-Maeda M, Luetkemeyer A, Small P. 2011. Tuberculosis Associated with HIV Infection, p 481-497. In Schlossberg D (ed), Tuberculosis and Nontuberculous Mycobacterial Infections, Sixth Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555817138.ch32
/content/10.1128/9781555817138.ch32.ch32fig01
Figure 1.
Lateral chest radiograph showing extensive mid- and lower-lung field involvement and associated lymphadenopathy in a man with AIDS.
10.1128/9781555817138/f0486-01_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555817138/f0486-01.gif
Image of Figure 1.
Figure 1.

Lateral chest radiograph showing extensive mid- and lower-lung field involvement and associated lymphadenopathy in a man with AIDS.

Citation: Kato-Maeda M, Luetkemeyer A, Small P. 2011. Tuberculosis Associated with HIV Infection, p 481-497. In Schlossberg D (ed), Tuberculosis and Nontuberculous Mycobacterial Infections, Sixth Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555817138.ch32
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555817138.ch32.ch32fig02
Figure 2.
Posteroanterior chest radiograph demonstrating extensive right lower infiltrate associated with pleural effusion.
10.1128/9781555817138/f0486-02_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555817138/f0486-02.gif
Image of Figure 2.
Figure 2.

Posteroanterior chest radiograph demonstrating extensive right lower infiltrate associated with pleural effusion.

Citation: Kato-Maeda M, Luetkemeyer A, Small P. 2011. Tuberculosis Associated with HIV Infection, p 481-497. In Schlossberg D (ed), Tuberculosis and Nontuberculous Mycobacterial Infections, Sixth Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555817138.ch32
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555817138.ch32.ch32fig03
Figure 3.
Posteroanterior chest radiograph showing extensive bilateral diffuse infiltrate in a young woman with advanced HIV infection.
10.1128/9781555817138/f0486-03_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555817138/f0486-03.gif
Image of Figure 3.
Figure 3.

Posteroanterior chest radiograph showing extensive bilateral diffuse infiltrate in a young woman with advanced HIV infection.

Citation: Kato-Maeda M, Luetkemeyer A, Small P. 2011. Tuberculosis Associated with HIV Infection, p 481-497. In Schlossberg D (ed), Tuberculosis and Nontuberculous Mycobacterial Infections, Sixth Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555817138.ch32
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint

References

/content/book/10.1128/9781555817138.ch32
1. Abdool Karim, S. S.,, K. Naidoo,, A. Grobler,, N. Padayatchi,, C. Baxter,, A. Gray,, T. Gengiah,, G. Nair,, S. Bamber,, A. Singh,, M. Khan,, J. Pienaar,, W. El-Sadr,, G. Friedland, and, Q. Abdool Karim. 2010. Timing of initiation of antiretroviral drugs during tuberculosis therapy. N. Engl. J. Med. 362: 697– 706.
2. Akolo, C.,, I. Adetifa,, S. Shepperd, and, J. Volmink. 2010. Treatment of latent tuberculosis infection in HIV infected persons. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2010: CD000171.
3. Alland, D.,, G. E. Kalkut,, A. R. Moss,, R. A. McAdam,, J. A. Hahn,, W. Bosworth,, E. Drucker, and, B. R. Bloom. 1994. Transmission of tuberculosis in New York City. An analysis by DNA fingerprinting and conventional epidemiologic methods. N. Engl. J. Med. 330: 1710– 1716.
4. Alpert, P. L.,, S. S. Munsiff,, M. N. Gourevitch,, B. Greenberg, and, R. S. Klein. 1997. A prospective study of tuberculosis and human immunodeficiency virus infection: clinical manifestations and factors associated with survival. Clin. Infect. Dis. 24: 661– 668.
5. American Thoracic Society. 2000. Targeted tuberculin testing and treatment of latent tuberculosis infection. This official statement of the American Thoracic Society was adopted by the ATS Board of Directors, July 1999. This is a Joint Statement of the American Thoracic Society (ATS) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). This statement was endorsed by the Council of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. (IDSA), September 1999, and the sections of this statement. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 161: S221– S247.
6. Andrews, J. R.,, N. R. Gandhi,, P. Moodley,, N. S. Shah,, L. Bohlken,, A. P. Moll,, M. Pillay,, G. Friedland, and, A. W. Sturm. 2008. Exogenous reinfection as a cause of multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis in rural South Africa. J. Infect. Dis. 198: 1582– 1589.
7. Avihingsanon, A.,, W. Manosuthi,, P. Kantipong,, C. Chuchotaworn,, S. Moolphate,, W. Sakornjun,, M. Gorowara,, N. Yamada,, H. Yanai,, S. Mitarai,, N. Ishikawa,, D. A. Cooper,, P. Phanuphak,, D. Burger, and, K. Ruxrungtham. 2008. Pharmacokinetics and 48-week efficacy of nevirapine: 400 mg versus 600 mg per day in HIV-tuberculosis coinfection receiving rifampicin. Antivir. Ther. 13: 529– 536.
8. Bannister, C.,, L. Bennett,, A. Carville, and, P. Azzopardi. 2009. Evidence behind the WHO guidelines: hospital care for children: what is the evidence that BCG vaccination should not be used in HIV-infected children? J. Trop. Pediatr. 55: 78– 82.
9. Barber, T. W.,, D. E. Craven, and, W. R. McCabe. 1990. Bacteremia due to Mycobacterium tuberculosis in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. A report of 9 cases and a review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore) 69: 375– 383.
10. Barnes, P. F. 1993. Role of fiberoptic bronchoscopy in diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis in patients at risk for AIDS. Chest 103: 1923– 1924.
11. Benson, C. A.,, J. E. Kaplan,, H. Masur,, A. Pau, and, K. K. Holmes. 2004. Treating opportunistic infections among HIV-infected adults and adolescents: recommendations from CDC, the National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association/Infectious Diseases Society of America. MMWR Recommend. Rep. 53: 1– 112.
12. Biava, M.,, G. C. Porretta,, D. Deidda, and, R. Pompei. 2006. New trends in development of antimycobacterial compounds. Infect. Disord. Drug Targets 6: 159– 172.
13. Blanc, F. X.,, T. Sok,, D. Laureillard,, L. Borand,, C. Rekacewicz,, E. Nerrienet,, Y. Madec,, O. Marcy,, S. Chan,, N. Prak,, C. Kim,, K. K. Lak,, C. Hak,, B. Dim,, C. I. Sin,, S. Sun,, B. Guillard,, B. Sar,, S. Vong,, M. Fernandez,, L. Fox,, J. F. Delfraissy, and, A. E. Goldfeld. 2010. Significant enhancement in survival with early (2 weeks) vs. late (8 weeks) initiation of highly active anti-retroviral treatment (HAART) in severely immunosuppressed HIV-infected adults with newly diagnosed tuberculosis, abstr. THLBB106. Presented at the International AIDS Conference, Vienna, Austria.
14. Blumberg, H. M.,, W. J. Burman,, R. E. Chaisson,, C. L. Daley,, S. C. Etkind,, L. N. Friedman,, P. Fujiwara,, M. Grzemska,, P. C. Hopewell,, M. D. Iseman,, R. M. Jasmer,, V. Koppaka,, R. I. Menzies,, R. J. O’Brien,, R. R. Reves,, L. B. Reichman,, P. M. Simone,, J. R. Starke, and, A. A. Vernon. 2003. American Thoracic Society/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/Infectious Diseases Society of America: treatment of tuberculosis. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 167: 603– 662.
15. Boehme, C. C.,, P. Nabeta,, D. Hillemann,, M. P. Nicol,, S. Shenai,, F. Krapp,, J. Allen,, R. Tahirli,, R. Blakemore,, R. Rustomjee,, A. Milovic,, M. Jones,, S. M. O’Brien,, D. H. Persing,, S. Ruesch-Gerdes,, E. Gotuzzo,, C. Rodrigues,, D. Alland, and, M. D. Perkins. 2010. Rapid molecular detection of tuberculosis and rifampin resistance. N. Engl. J. Med. 363: 1005– 1015.
16. Bocchino, M.,, D. Galati,, A. Sanduzzi,, V. Colizzi,, E. Brunetti, and, G. Mancino. 2005. Role of mycobacteria-induced monocyte/macrophage apoptosis in the pathogenesis of human tuberculosis. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 9: 375– 383.
17. Boulanger, C.,, E. Hollender,, K. Farrell,, J. J. Stambaugh,, D. Maasen,, D. Ashkin,, S. Symes,, L. A. Espinoza,, R. O. Rivero,, J. J. Graham, and, C. A. Peloquin. 2009. Pharmacokinetic evaluation of rifabutin in combination with lopinavir-ritonavir in patients with HIV infection and active tuberculosis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 49: 1305– 1311.
18. Boulle, A.,, G. Van Cutsem,, K. Cohen,, K. Hilderbrand,, S. Mathee,, M. Abrahams,, E. Goemaere,, D. Coetzee, and, G. Maartens. 2008. Outcomes of nevirapine- and efavirenz-based antiretroviral therapy when coadministered with rifampicinbased antitubercular therapy. JAMA 300: 530– 539.
19. Branson, B. M.,, H. H. Handsfield,, M. A. Lampe,, R. S. Janssen,, A. W. Taylor,, S. B. Lyss, and, J. E. Clark. 2006. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR Recommend. Rep. 55: 1– 17.
20. Burger, D. M.,, S. Agarwala,, M. Child,, A. Been-Tiktak,, Y. Wang, and, R. Bertz. 2006. Effect of rifampin on steady-state pharmacokinetics of atazanavir with ritonavir in healthy volunteers. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 50: 3336– 3342.
21. Burman, W. J. 2010. Rip Van Winkle wakes up: development of tuberculosis treatment in the 21st century. Clin. Infect. Dis. 50 (Suppl. 3): S165– S172.
22. Burman, W.,, D. Benator,, A. Vernon,, A. Khan,, B. Jones,, C. Silva,, C. Lahart,, S. Weis,, B. King,, B. Mangura,, M. Weiner, and, W. El-Sadr. 2006. Acquired rifamycin resistance with twice-weekly treatment of HIV-related tuberculosis. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 173: 350– 356.
23. Burman, W. J.,, K. Gallicano, and, C. Peloquin. 1999. Therapeutic implications of drug interactions in the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus-related tuberculosis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 28: 419– 430.
24. Burman, W. J.,, and B. E. Jones. 2001. Treatment of HIV-related tuberculosis in the era of effective antiretroviral therapy. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 164: 7– 12.
25. Burman, W. J.,, and B. E. Jones. 2003. Clinical and radio-graphic features of HIV-related tuberculosis. Semin. Respir. Infect. 18: 263– 271.
26. Campsmith, M. L.,, P. H. Rhodes,, H. I. Hall, and, T. A. Green. 2010. Undiagnosed HIV prevalence among adults and adolescents in the United States at the end of 2006. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 53: 619– 624.
27. Canaday, D. H.,, M. Wu,, S. Lu,, H. Aung,, P. Peters,, J. Baseke,, W. Mackay,, H. Mayanja-Kizza, and, Z. Toossi. 2009. Induction of HIV type 1 expression correlates with T cell responsiveness to mycobacteria in patients coinfected with HIV type 1 and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 25: 213– 216.
28. Casado, J. L.,, S. Moreno,, J. Fortun,, A. Antela,, C. Quereda,, E. Navas,, A. Moreno, and, F. Dronda. 2002. Risk factors for development of tuberculosis after isoniazid chemoprophylaxis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. Clin. Infect. Dis. 34: 386– 389.
29. Cattamanchi, A.,, J. L. Davis,, W. Worodria,, S. den Boon,, S. Yoo,, J. Matovu,, J. Kiidha,, F. Nankya,, R. Kyeyune,, P. Byanyima,, A. Andama,, M. Joloba,, D. H. Osmond,, P. C. Hopewell, and, L. Huang. 2009. Sensitivity and specificity of fluorescence microscopy for diagnosing pulmonary tuberculosis in a high HIV prevalence setting. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 13: 1130– 1136.
30. Cattamanchi, A.,, R. Smith,, K. R. Steingart,, J. Z. Metcalfe,, A. Date,, C. Coleman,, B. J. Marston,, L. Huang,, P. C. Hopewell, and, M. Pai. 2010. Interferon-gamma release assays for the diagnosis of latent tuberculosis infection in HIV-infected individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 56: 230– 238.
31. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2010. Decrease in reported tuberculosis cases—United States, 2009. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 59: 289– 294.
32. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1997. Anergy skin testing and tuberculosis [corrected] preventive therapy for HIV-infected persons: revised recommendations. MMWR Recommend. Rep. 46: 1– 10.
33. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2000. Targeted tuberculin testing and treatment of latent tuberculosis infection. American Thoracic Society. MMWR Recommend. Rep. 49: 1– 51.
34. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2003. Update: adverse event data and revised American Thoracic Society/CDC recommendations against the use of rifampin and pyrazinamide for treatment of latent tuberculosis infection— United States, 2003. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 52: 735– 739.
35. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2009. Trends in tuberculosis— United States, 2008. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 58: 249– 253.
36. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2009. Updated guidelines for the use of nucleic acid amplification tests in the diagnosis of tuberculosis. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 58: 7– 10.
37. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2007. Managing Drug Interactions in the Treatment of HIV-Related Tuberculosis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA.
38. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2010. Diagnoses of HIV infection and AIDS in the United States and dependent areas, 2009. HIV Surveillance Report, vol. 21. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA.
39. Chamie, G.,, A. Luetkemeyer,, M. Walusimbi-Nanteza,, A. Okwera,, C. C. Whalen,, R. D. Mugerwa,, D. V. Havlir, and, E. D. Charlebois. 2010. Significant variation in presentation of pulmonary tuberculosis across a high resolution of CD4 strata. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 14: 1295– 1302.
40. Charalambous, S.,, A. D. Grant,, C. Innes,, C. J. Hoffmann,, R. Dowdeswell,, J. Pienaar,, K. L. Fielding, and, G. J. Churchyard. 2010. Association of isoniazid preventive therapy with lower early mortality in individuals on antiretroviral therapy in a workplace programme. AIDS 24 (Suppl 5): S5– 13.
41. Cohen, K.,, A. Grant,, C. Dandara,, H. McIlleron,, L. Pemba,, K. Fielding,, S. Charalombous,, G. Churchyard,, P. Smith, and, G. Maartens. 2009. Effect of rifampicin-based antitubercular therapy and the cytochrome P450 2B6 516G>T polymorphism on efavirenz concentrations in adults in South Africa. Antivir. Ther. 14: 687– 695.
42. Conde, M. B.,, A. Efron,, C. Loredo,, G. R. De Souza,, N. P. Graca,, M. C. Cezar,, M. Ram,, M. A. Chaudhary,, W. R. Bishai,, A. L. Kritski, and, R. E. Chaisson. 2009. Moxifloxacin versus ethambutol in the initial treatment of tuberculosis: a double-blind, randomised, controlled phase II trial. Lancet 373: 1183– 1189.
43. Daley, C. L.,, P. M. Small,, G. F. Schecter,, G. K. Schoolnik,, R. A. McAdam,, W. R. Jacobs, Jr., and, P. C. Hopewell. 1992. An outbreak of tuberculosis with accelerated progression among persons infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. An analysis using restriction-fragment-length polymorphisms. N. Engl. J. Med. 326: 231– 235.
44. Dean, G. L.,, S. G. Edwards,, N. J. Ives,, G. Matthews,, E. F. Fox,, L. Navaratne,, M. Fisher,, G. P. Taylor,, R. Miller,, C. B. Taylor,, A. de Ruiter, and, A. L. Pozniak. 2002. Treatment of tuberculosis in HIV-infected persons in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 16: 75– 83.
45. Diacon, A. H.,, A. Pym,, M. Grobusch,, R. Patientia,, R. Rustomjee,, L. Page-Shipp,, C. Pistorius,, R. Krause,, M. Bogoshi,, G. Churchyard,, A. Venter,, J. Allen,, J. C. Palomino,, T. De Marez,, R. P. van Heeswijk,, N. Lounis,, P. Meyvisch,, J. Verbeeck,, W. Parys,, K. de Beule,, K. Andries, and, D. F. Mc Neeley. 2009. The diarylquinoline TMC207 for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. N. Engl. J. Med. 360: 2397– 2405.
46. Di Perri, G.,, M. Cruciani,, M. C. Danzi,, R. Luzzati,, G. De Checchi,, M. Malena,, S. Pizzighella,, R. Mazzi,, M. Solbiati,, E. Concia, et al. 1989. Nosocomial epidemic of active tuberculosis among HIV-infected patients. Lancet ii: 1502– 1504.
47. Dubrovina, I.,, K. Miskinis,, S. Lyepshina,, Y. Yann,, H. Hoffmann,, R. Zaleskis,, P. Nunn, and, M. Zignol. 2008. Drug-resistant tuberculosis and HIV in Ukraine: a threatening convergence of two epidemics? Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 12: 756– 762.
48. Elliott, A. M.,, K. Namaambo,, B. W. Allen,, N. Luo,, R. J. Hayes,, J. O. Pobee, and, K. P. McAdam. 1993. Negative sputum smear results in HIV-positive patients with pulmonary tuberculosis in Lusaka, Zambia. Tuber. Lung Dis. 74: 191– 194.
49. Eng, B.,, K. P. Cain,, K. Nong,, V. Chhum,, E. Sin,, S. Roeun,, S. Kim,, S. Keo,, T. A. Heller, and, J. K. Varma. 2009. Impact of a public antiretroviral program on TB/HIV mortality: Banteay Meanchey, Cambodia. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 40: 89– 92.
50. Escombe, A. R.,, D. A. Moore,, R. H. Gilman,, W. Pan,, M. Navincopa,, E. Ticona,, C. Martinez,, L. Caviedes,, P. Sheen,, A. Gonzalez,, C. J. Noakes,, J. S. Friedland, and, C. A. Evans. 2008. The infectiousness of tuberculosis patients coinfected with HIV. PLoS Med. 5: e188.
51. Fee, M. J.,, M. M. Oo,, A. E. Gabayan,, D. R. Radin and, P. F. Barnes. 1995. Abdominal tuberculosis in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Clin. Infect. Dis. 20: 938– 944.
52. Fitzgerald, D., et al. 2009. Early versus delayed ART: results from Haiti, abstract WESY201. Presented at the Fifth IAS Conference on HIV Pathogenesis, Treatment, and Prevention.
53. Gandhi, N. R.,, A. Moll,, A. W. Sturm,, R. Pawinski,, T. Govender,, U. Lalloo,, K. Zeller,, J. Andrews, and, G. Friedland. 2006. Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis as a cause of death in patients co-infected with tuberculosis and HIV in a rural area of South Africa. Lancet 368: 1575– 1580.
54. Gandhi, N. R.,, N. S. Shah,, J. R. Andrews,, V. Vella,, A. P. Moll,, M. Scott,, D. Weissman,, C. Marra,, U. G. Lalloo, and, G. H. Friedland. 2010. HIV coinfection in multidrug-and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis results in high early mortality. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 181: 80– 86.
55. Glynn, J. R.,, J. Murray,, A. Bester,, G. Nelson,, S. Shearer, and, P. Sonnenberg. 2008. Effects of duration of HIV infection and secondary tuberculosis transmission on tuberculosis incidence in the South African gold mines. AIDS 22: 1859– 1867.
56. Goletti, D.,, S. Carrara,, D. Vincenti,, E. Giacomini,, L. Fattorini,, A. R. Garbuglia,, M. R. Capobianchi,, T. Alonzi,, G. M. Fimia,, M. Federico,, G. Poli, and, E. Coccia. 2004. Inhibition of HIV-1 replication in monocytederived macrophages by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. J. Infect. Dis. 189: 624– 633.
57. Goletti, D.,, D. Weissman,, R. W. Jackson,, N. M. Graham,, D. Vlahov,, R. S. Klein,, S. S. Munsiff,, L. Ortona,, R. Cauda, and, A. S. Fauci. 1996. Effect of Mycobacterium tuberculosis on HIV replication. Role of immune activation. J. Immunol. 157: 1271– 1278.
58. Golub, J. E.,, V. Saraceni,, S. C. Cavalcante,, A. G. Pacheco,, L. H. Moulton,, B. S. King,, A. Efron,, R. D. Moore,, R. E. Chaisson, and, B. Durovni. 2007. The impact of antiretroviral therapy and isoniazid preventive therapy on tuberculosis incidence in HIV-infected patients in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. AIDS 21: 1441– 1448.
59. Gopi, A.,, S. M. Madhavan,, S. K. Sharma, and, S. A. Sahn. 2007. Diagnosis and treatment of tuberculous pleural effusion in 2006. Chest 131: 880– 889.
60. Grandjean, L.,, and D. A. Moore. 2008. Tuberculosis in the developing world: recent advances in diagnosis with special consideration of extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 21: 454– 461.
61. Gray, D. M.,, H. Zar, and, M. Cotton. 2009. Impact of tuberculosis preventive therapy on tuberculosis and mortality in HIV-infected children. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2009: CD006418
62. Havlir, D.,, P. Ive,, M. Kendall, et al. 2011. International Randomized Trail of Immediate vs. Early ART in HIV+ patients treated for TB: ACTG 5221 STRIDE study, abstr. #38. Presented at the 18th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Boston, MA.
63. Hesseling, A. C.,, M. F. Cotton,, C. Fordham von Reyn,, S. M. Graham,, R. P. Gie, and, G. D. Hussey. 2008. Consensus statement on the revised World Health Organization recommendations for BCG vaccination in HIV-infected infants. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 12: 1376– 1379.
64. Hesseling, A. C.,, L. F. Johnson,, H. Jaspan,, M. F. Cotton,, A. Whitelaw,, H. S. Schaaf,, P. E. Fine,, B. S. Eley,, B. J. Marais,, J. Nuttall,, N. Beyers, and, P. Godfrey-Faussett. 2009. Disseminated bacille Calmette-Guerin disease in HIV-infected South African infants. Bull. W. H. O. 87: 505– 511.
65. Hesseling, A. C.,, A. E. Westra,, H. Werschkull,, P. R. Donald,, N. Beyers,, G. D. Hussey,, W. El-Sadr, and, H. S. Schaaf. 2005. Outcome of HIV infected children with culture confirmed tuberculosis. Arch. Dis. Child. 90: 1171– 1174.
66. Hopewell, P. C.,, M. Pai,, D. Maher,, M. Uplekar, and, M. C. Raviglione. 2006. International standards for tuberculosis care. Lancet Infect. Dis. 6: 710– 725.
67. Iademarco, M. F.,, and K. G. Castro. 2003. Epidemiology of tuberculosis. Semin. Respir. Infect. 18: 225– 240.
68. Reference deleted.
69. Jenny-Avital, E. R.,, and K. Joseph. 2009. Rifamycin-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis in the highly active antiretroviral therapy era: a report of 3 relapses with acquired rifampin resistance following alternate-day rifabutin and boosted protease inhibitor therapy. Clin. Infect. Dis. 48: 1471– 1474.
70. Johnson, J. L.,, M. J. Vjecha,, A. Okwera,, E. Hatanga,, F. Byekwaso,, K. Wolski,, T. Aisu,, C. C. Whalen,, R. Huebner,, R. D. Mugerwa, and, J. J. Ellner. 1998. Impact of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 infection on the initial bacteriologic and radiographic manifestations of pulmonary tuberculosis in Uganda. Makerere University-Case Western Reserve University Research Collaboration. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 2: 397– 404.
71. Jones, B. E.,, S. M. Young,, D. Antoniskis,, P. T. Davidson,, F. Kramer, and, P. F. Barnes. 1993. Relationship of the manifestations of tuberculosis to CD4 cell counts in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 148: 1292– 1297.
72. Kaplan, J. E.,, C. Benson,, K. H. Holmes,, J. T. Brooks,, A. Pau, and, H. Masur. 2009. Guidelines for prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in HIV-infected adults and adolescents: recommendations from CDC, the National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. MMWR Recommend. Rep. 58: 1– 207.
73. Karam, F.,, F. Mbow,, H. Fletcher,, C. S. Senghor,, K. D. Coulibaly,, A. M. LeFevre,, N. F. Ngom Gueye,, T. Dieye,, P. S. Sow,, S. Mboup, and, C. Lienhardt. 2008. Sensitivity of IFN-gamma release assay to detect latent tuberculosis infection is retained in HIV-infected patients but dependent on HIV/AIDS progression. PLoS One 3: e1441.
74. Khan, F. A.,, J. Minion,, M. Pai,, S. Royce,, W. Burman,, A. D. Harries, and, D. Menzies. 2010. Treatment of active tuberculosis in HIV co-infected patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 50: 1288– 1299.
75. Kivihya-Ndugga, L.,, M. van Cleeff,, E. Juma,, J. Kimwomi,, W. Githui,, L. Oskam,, A. Schuitema,, D. van Soolingen,, L. Nganga,, D. Kibuga,, J. Odhiambo, and, P. Klatser. 2004. Comparison of PCR with the routine procedure for diagnosis of tuberculosis in a population with high prevalences of tuberculosis and human immunodeficiency virus. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42: 1012– 1015.
76. Kwara, A.,, G. Ramachandran, and, S. Swaminathan. 2010. Dose adjustment of the non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors during concurrent rifampicin-containing tuberculosis therapy: one size does not fit all. Expert Opin. Drug Metab. Toxicol. 6: 55– 68.
77. Lalvani, A.,, and M. Pareek. 2010. Interferon gamma release assays: principles and practice. Enferm. Infecc. Microbiol. Clin. 28: 245– 252.
78. Lambert, P. H.,, T. Hawkridge, and, W. A. Hanekom. 2009. New vaccines against tuberculosis. Clin. Chest Med. 30: 811– 826.
79. Lawn, S. D.,, L. G. Bekker, and, R. Wood. 2005. How effectively does HAART restore immune responses to Mycobacterium tuberculosis? Implications for tuberculosis control. AIDS 19: 1113– 1124.
80. Lawn, S. D.,, L. Myer,, L. G. Bekker, and, R. Wood. 2006. Burden of tuberculosis in an antiretroviral treatment programme in sub-Saharan Africa: impact on treatment outcomes and implications for tuberculosis control. AIDS 20: 1605– 1612.
81. Leidl, L.,, H. Mayanja-Kizza,, G. Sotgiu,, J. Baseke,, M. Ernst,, C. Hirsch,, D. Goletti,, Z. Toossi, and, C. Lange. 2010. Relationship of immunodiagnostic assays for tuberculosis and numbers of circulating CD4+ T-cells in HIV-infection. Eur. Respir. J. 35: 619– 626.
82. Lopez-Gatell, H.,, S. R. Cole,, N. A. Hessol,, A. L. French,, R. M. Greenblatt,, S. Landesman,, S. Preston-Martin, and, K. Anastos. 2007. Effect of tuberculosis on the survival of women infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Am. J. Epidemiol. 165: 1134– 1142.
83. Lopez-Gatell, H.,, S. R. Cole,, J. B. Margolick,, M. D. Witt,, J. Martinson,, J. P. Phair, and, L. P. Jacobson. 2008. Effect of tuberculosis on the survival of HIV-infected men in a country with low tuberculosis incidence. AIDS 22: 1869– 1873.
84. Lotte, A.,, O. Wasz-Hockert,, N. Poisson,, H. Engbaek,, H. Landmann,, U. Quast,, B. Andrasofszky,, L. Lugosi,, I. Vadasz,, P. Mihailescu, et al. 1988. Second IUATLD study on complications induced by intradermal BCG-vaccination. Bull. Int. Union Tuberc. Lung Dis. 63: 47– 59.
85. Luetkemeyer, A. F.,, E. D. Charlebois,, L. L. Flores,, D. R. Bangsberg,, S. G. Deeks,, J. N. Martin, and, D. V. Havlir. 2007. Comparison of an interferon-gamma release assay with tuberculin skin testing in HIV-infected individuals. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 175: 737– 742.
86. Manabe, Y. C.,, R. Breen,, T. Perti,, E. Girardi, and, T. R. Sterling. 2009. Unmasked tuberculosis and tuberculosis immune reconstitution inflammatory disease: a disease spectrum after initiation of antiretroviral therapy. J. Infect. Dis. 199: 437– 444.
87. Mansoor, N.,, T. J. Scriba,, M. de Kock,, M. Tameris,, B. Abel,, A. Keyser,, F. Little,, A. Soares,, S. Gelderbloem,, S. Mlenjeni,, L. De-nation,, A. Hawkridge,, W. H. Boom,, G. Kaplan,, G. D. Hussey, and, W. A. Hanekom. 2009. HIV-1 infection in infants severely impairs the immune response induced by Bacille Calmette Guerin vaccine. J. Infect. Dis. 199: 982– 990.
88. Mayanja-Kizza, H.,, M. Wu,, H. Aung,, S. Liu,, H. Luzze,, C. Hirsch, and, Z. Toossi. 2009. The interaction of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and tumour necrosis factor-alpha in Mycobacterium tuberculosis-induced HIV-1 replication at sites of active tuberculosis. Scand. J. Immunol. 69: 516– 520.
89. Mazurek, G. H.,, J. Jereb,, A. Vernon,, P. LoBue,, S. Goldberg, and, K. Castro. 2010. Updated guidelines for using interferon gamma release assays to detect Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection—United States. MMWR Recomm. Rep. 59: 1– 25.
90. Meintjes, G.,, S. D. Lawn,, F. Scano,, G. Maartens,, M. A. French,, W. Worodria,, J. H. Elliott,, D. Murdoch,, R. J. Wilkinson,, C. Seyler,, L. John,, M. S. van der Loeff,, P. Reiss,, L. Lynen,, E. N. Janoff,, C. Gilks, and, R. Colebunders. 2008. Tuberculosis-associated immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome: case definitions for use in resource-limited settings. Lancet Infect. Dis. 8: 516– 523.
91. Mendelson, M. 2007. Diagnosing tuberculosis in HIV-infected patients: challenges and future prospects. Br. Med. Bull. 81-82: 149– 165.
92. Mofenson, L. M.,, M. T. Brady,, S. P. Danner,, K. L. Dominguez,, R. Hazra,, E. Handelsman,, P. Havens,, S. Nesheim,, J. S. Read,, L. Serchuck, and, R. Van Dyke. 2009. Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections among HIV-exposed and HIV-infected children: recommendations from CDC, the National Institutes of Health, the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, and the American Academy of Pediatrics. MMWR Recommend. Rep. 58: 1– 166.
93. Moore, D.,, C. Liechty,, P. Ekwaru,, W. Were,, G. Mwima,, P. Solberg,, G. Rutherford, and, J. Mermin. 2007. Prevalence, incidence and mortality associated with tuberculosis in HIV-infected patients initiating antiretroviral therapy in rural Uganda. AIDS 21: 713– 719.
94. Moreno, S.,, I. Jarrin,, J. A. Iribarren,, M. J. Perez-Elias,, P. Viciana,, J. Parra-Ruiz,, J. L. Gomez-Sirvent,, J. Lopez-Aldeguer,, F. Gutierrez,, J. R. Blanco,, F. Vidal,, M. Leal,, M. A. Rodriguez Arenas, and, J. Del Amo. 2008. Incidence and risk factors for tuberculosis in HIV-positive subjects by HAART status. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 12: 1393– 1400.
95. Moss, A. R.,, J. A. Hahn,, J. P. Tulsky,, C. L. Daley,, P. M. Small, and, P. C. Hopewell. 2000. Tuberculosis in the homeless. A prospective study. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 162: 460– 464.
96. Muga, R.,, I. Ferreros,, K. Langohr,, P. G. de Olalla,, J. Del Romero,, M. Quintana,, I. Alastrue,, J. Belda,, J. Tor,, S. Perez-Hoyos, and, J. Del Amo. 2007. Changes in the incidence of tuberculosis in a cohort of HIV-seroconverters before and after the introduction of HAART. AIDS 21: 2521– 2527.
97. Nahid, P.,, L. C. Gonzalez,, I. Rudoy,, B. C. de Jong,, A. Unger,, L. M. Kawamura,, D. H. Osmond,, P. C. Hopewell, and, C. L. Daley. 2007. Treatment outcomes of patients with HIV and tuberculosis. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 175: 1199– 1206.
98. National Center for HIV STD and TB Prevention. 2003. Estimated numbers of diagnoses of HIV/AIDS, by year of diagnosis and selected characteristics of persons, 1999–2002—30 areas with confidential name-based HIV infection reporting, p. 10. HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, vol. 14. National Center for HIV STD and TB Prevention, Atlanta, GA.
99. Okwera, A.,, J. L. Johnson,, M. J. Vjecha,, K. Wolski,, C. C. Whalen,, D. Hom,, R. Huebner,, R. D. Mugerwa, and, J. J. Ellner. 1997. Risk factors for adverse drug reactions during thiacetazone treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis in human immunodeficiency virus infected adults. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 1: 441– 445.
100. Panjabi, R.,, G. W. Comstock, and, J. E. Golub. 2007. Recurrent tuberculosis and its risk factors: adequately treated patients are still at high risk. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 11: 828– 837.
101. Patel, N. R.,, K. Swan,, X. Li,, S. D. Tachado, and, H. Koziel. 2009. Impaired M. tuberculosis-mediated apoptosis in alveolar macrophages from HIV+ persons: potential role of IL-10 and BCL-3. J. Leukoc. Biol. 86: 53– 60.
102. Perlman, D. C.,, W. M. el-Sadr,, E. T. Nelson,, J. P. Matts,, E. E. Telzak,, N. Salomon,, K. Chirgwin,, R. Hafner, et al. 1997. Variation of chest radiographic patterns in pulmonary tuberculosis by degree of human immunodeficiency virus-related immunosuppression. The Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS (CPCRA). Clin. Infect. Dis. 25: 242– 246.
103. Prasad, K.,, and M. B. Singh. 2008. Corticosteroids for managing tuberculous meningitis. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2008: CD002244.
104. Raby, E.,, M. Moyo,, A. Devendra,, J. Banda,, P. De Haas,, H. Ayles, and, P. Godfrey-Faussett. 2008. The effects of HIV on the sensitivity of a whole blood IFN-gamma release assay in Zambian adults with active tuberculosis. PLoS One 3: e2489.
105. Samandari, T.,, B. Mosimaneotsile,, T. Agizew,, S. Nyirenda,, Z. Tedla,, T. Sibanda,, O. Motsamai,, N. Shang,, P. Kilmarx, and, C. Wells. 2010. Randomized, placebo-controlled trial of 6 vs 36 months isoniazid TB preventive therapy for HIV-infected adults in Botswana, abstr. 104LB. 17th Conf. Retrovir. Oppor. Infect.
106. Sanguanwongse, N.,, K. P. Cain,, P. Suriya,, S. Nateniyom,, N. Yamada,, W. Wattanaamornkiat,, S. Sumnapan,, W. Sattayawuthipong,, S. Kaewsa-ard,, S. Ingkaseth, and, J. K. Varma. 2008. Antiretroviral therapy for HIV-infected tuberculosis patients saves lives but needs to be used more frequently in Thailand. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 48: 181– 189.
107. Schluger, N. W. 2003. The diagnosis of tuberculosis: what’s old, what’s new. Semin. Respir. Infect. 18: 241– 248.
108. Schluger, N. W.,, D. Perez, and, Y. M. Liu. 2002. Reconstitution of immune responses to tuberculosis in patients with HIV infection who receive antiretroviral therapy. Chest 122: 597– 602.
109. Schluger, N. W.,, and W. N. Rom. 1998. The host immune response to tuberculosis. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 157: 679– 691.
110. Schutte, C. M. 2001. Clinical, cerebrospinal fluid and pathological findings and outcomes in HIV-positive and HIV-negative patients with tuberculous meningitis. Infection 29: 213– 217.
111. Selwyn, P. A.,, D. Hartel,, V. A. Lewis,, E. E. Schoenbaum,, S. H. Vermund,, R. S. Klein,, A. T. Walker, and, G. H. Friedland. 1989. A prospective study of the risk of tuberculosis among intravenous drug users with human immunodeficiency virus infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 320: 545– 550.
112. Shah, N. S.,, R. Pratt,, L. Armstrong,, V. Robison,, K. G. Castro, and, J. P. Cegielski. 2008. Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis in the United States, 1993-2007. JAMA 300: 2153– 2160.
113. Shenoi, S.,, S. Heysell,, A. Moll, and, G. Friedland. 2009. Multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis: consequences for the global HIV community. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 22: 11– 17.
114. Slovis, B. S.,, J. D. Plitman, and, D. W. Haas. 2000. The case against anergy testing as a routine adjunct to tuberculin skin testing. JAMA 283: 2003– 2007.
115. Small, P. M.,, G. F. Schecter,, P. C. Goodman,, M. A. Sande,, R. E. Chaisson, and, P. C. Hopewell. 1991. Treatment of tuberculosis in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 324: 289– 294.
116. Sonnenberg, P.,, J. R. Glynn,, K. Fielding,, J. Murray,, P. Godfrey-Faussett, and, S. Shearer. 2004. HIV and pulmonary tuberculosis: the impact goes beyond those infected with HIV. AIDS 18: 657– 662.
117. Srikantiah, P.,, J. K. Wong,, T. Liegler,, M. Walusimbi,, H. Mayanja-Kizza,, H. K. Kayanja,, R. D. Mugerwa,, E. D. Charlebois,, W. H. Boom,, C. C. Whalen, and, D. V. Havlir. 2008. Unexpected low-level viremia among HIV-infected Ugandan adults with untreated active tuberculosis. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 49: 458– 460.
118. Stebbing, J.,, B. Gazzard, and, D. C. Douek. 2004. Where does HIV live? N. Engl. J. Med. 350: 1872– 1880.
119. Steingart, K. R.,, M. Henry,, V. Ng,, P. C. Hopewell,, A. Ramsay,, J. Cunningham,, R. Urbanczik,, M. Perkins,, M. A. Aziz, and, M. Pai. 2006. Fluorescence versus conventional sputum smear microscopy for tuberculosis: a systematic review. Lancet Infect. Dis. 6: 570– 581.
120. Sterling, T. R.,, J. Bethel,, S. Goldberg,, P. Weinfurter,, L. Yun, and, C. R. Horsburgh. 2006. The scope and impact of treatment of latent tuberculosis infection in the United States and Canada. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 173: 927– 931.
121. Sunderam, G.,, R. J. McDonald,, T. Maniatis,, J. Oleske,, R. Kapila, and, L. B. Reichman. 1986. Tuberculosis as a manifestation of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). JAMA 256: 362– 366.
122. Sutherland, R.,, H. Yang,, T. J. Scriba,, B. Ondondo,, N. Robinson,, C. Conlon,, A. Suttill,, H. McShane,, S. Fidler,, A. McMichael, and, L. Dorrell. 2006. Impaired IFN-gamma-secreting capacity in mycobacterial antigen-specific CD4 T cells during chronic HIV-1 infection despite long-term HAART. AIDS 20: 821– 829.
123. Swaminathan, S.,, P. Menon,, V. Perumal,, R. K. Santhanakrishnan,, R. Ramachandran,, P. Chinnaiah,, S. Iliayas,, N. Gopalan,, P. Chandrasekaran, and, P. Narayanan. 2010. Efficacy of a 6-month vs a 36-month regimen for prevention of TB in HIV-infected persons in India: a randomized clinical trial, abstr. 103. 17th Conf. Retrovir. Oppor. Infect.
124. Swaminathan, S.,, P. Venkatesan, et al. 2009. Once-daily nevirapine vs efavirenz in the treatment of HIV-infected patients with TB: a randomized clinical trial, abstr. 35. 16th Conf. Retrovir. Oppor. Infect.
125. Syed Ahamed Kabeer, B.,, R. Sikhamani,, S. Swaminathan,, V. Perumal,, P. Paramasivam, and, A. Raja. 2009. Role of interferon gamma release assay in active TB diagnosis among HIV infected individuals. PLoS One 4: e5718.
126. Talati, N. J.,, U. Seybold,, B. Humphrey,, A. Aina,, J. Tapia,, P. Weinfurter,, R. Albalak, and, H. M. Blumberg. 2009. Poor concordance between interferon-gamma release assays and tuberculin skin tests in diagnosis of latent tuberculosis infection among HIV-infected individuals. BMC Infect. Dis. 9: 15.
127. Tappero, J. W.,, W. Z. Bradford,, T. B. Agerton,, P. Hopewell,, A. L. Reingold,, S. Lockman,, A. Oyewo,, E. A. Talbot,, T. A. Kenyon,, T. L. Moeti,, H. J. Moffat, and, C. A. Peloquin. 2005. Serum concentrations of antimycobacterial drugs in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis in Botswana. Clin. Infect. Dis. 41: 461– 469.
128. Thwaites, G. E.,, D. B. Nguyen,, H. D. Nguyen,, T. Q. Hoang,, T. T. Do,, T. C. Nguyen,, Q. H. Nguyen,, T. T. Nguyen,, N. H. Nguyen,, T. N. Nguyen,, N. L. Nguyen,, N. T. Vu,, H. H. Cao,, T. H. Tran,, P. M. Pham,, T. D. Nguyen,, K. Stepniewska,, N. J. White, and, J. J. Farrar. 2004. Dexamethasone for the treatment of tuberculous meningitis in adolescents and adults. N. Engl. J. Med. 351: 1741– 1751.
129. Toossi, Z. 2003. Virological and immunological impact of tuberculosis on human immunodeficiency virus type 1 disease. J. Infect. Dis. 188: 1146– 1155.
130. Toossi, Z.,, H. Mayanja-Kizza,, C. S. Hirsch,, K. L. Edmonds,, T. Spahlinger,, D. L. Hom,, H. Aung,, P. Mugyenyi,, J. J. Ellner, and, C. W. Whalen. 2001. Impact of tuberculosis (TB) on HIV-1 activity in dually infected patients. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 123: 233– 238.
131. Torok, M. Y. N.,, T. Chau,, N. Mai,, N. Phu,, P. Mai, and, J. Farrar. 2009. Randomised controlled trial of immediate versus deferred antiretroviral therapy in HIV-associated tuberculosis meningitis, abstr. H-1224. Presented at the 49th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, San Francisco, CA.
132. UNAIDS. 2010. UNAIDS Report On the Global AIDS Epidemic. UNAIDS, Geneva, Switzerland.
133. Ungo, J. R.,, D. Jones,, D. Ashkin,, E. S. Hollender,, D. Bernstein,, A. P. Albanese, and, A. E. Pitchenik. 1998. Antituberculosis drug-induced hepatotoxicity. The role of hepatitis C virus and the human immunodeficiency virus. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 157: 1871– 1876.
134. Vernon, A.,, W. Burman,, D. Benator,, A. Khan,, L. Bozeman, et al. 1999. Acquired rifamycin monoresistance in patients with HIV-related tuberculosis treated with once-weekly rifapentine and isoniazid. Lancet 353: 1843– 1847.
135. Vynnycky, E.,, and P. E. Fine. 1997. The natural history of tuberculosis: the implications of age-dependent risks of disease and the role of reinfection. Epidemiol. Infect. 119: 183– 201.
136. Wells, C. D.,, J. P. Cegielski,, L. J. Nelson,, K. F. Laserson,, T. H. Holtz,, A. Finlay,, K. G. Castro, and, K. Weyer. 2007. HIV infection and multidrug-resistant tuberculosis: the perfect storm. J. Infect. Dis. 196 (Suppl. 1): S86– S107.
137. Wenning, L. A.,, W. D. Hanley,, D. M. Brainard,, A. S. Petry,, K. Ghosh,, B. Jin,, E. Mangin,, T. C. Marbury,, J. K. Berg,, J. A. Chodakewitz,, J. A. Stone,, K. M. Gottesdiener,, J. A. Wagner, and, M. Iwamoto. 2009. Effect of rifampin, a potent inducer of drug-metabolizing enzymes, on the pharmacokinetics of raltegravir. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 53: 2852– 2856.
138. WHO. 2008. WHO Three I’s Meeting. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
139. WHO. 2009. Antiretroviral Therapy for HIV Infection In Adults and Adolescents. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
140. World Health Organization. 2008. Anti- Tuberculosis Drug Resistance In the World. Fourth Global Report. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
141. World Health Organization. 2009. Global Tuberculosis Control 2009: Epidemiology, Strategy, Financing. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
142. World Health Organization. 2010. Global Tuberculosis Control 2010. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
143. World Health Organization. 2009. Treatment of Tuberculosis: Guidelines. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
144. World Health Organization Europe. 2003. HIV/ AIDS Treatment: Antiretroviral Therapy. Fact Sheet EURO/06/03. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
145. Yang, Z.,, Y. Kong,, F. Wilson,, B. Foxman,, A. H. Fowler,, C. F. Marrs,, M. D. Cave, and, J. H. Bates. 2004. Identification of risk factors for extrapulmonary tuberculosis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 38: 199– 205.
146. Zar, H. J.,, M. F. Cotton,, S. Strauss,, J. Karpakis,, G. Hussey,, H. S. Schaaf,, H. Rabie, and, C. J. Lombard. 2007. Effect of isoniazid prophylaxis on mortality and incidence of tuberculosis in children with HIV: randomised controlled trial. BMJ 334: 136.
147. Zwang, J.,, M. Garenne,, K. Kahn,, M. Collinson, and, S. M. Tollman. 2007. Trends in mortality from pulmonary tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS co-infection in rural South Africa (Agincourt). Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 101: 893– 898.

Tables

Tuberculosis Associated with HIV Infection
[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555817138.ch32-1,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555817138.ch32-1,properties={foaf_givenname=Midori, foaf_name=Midori Kato-Maeda, foaf_surname=Kato-Maeda, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555817138.ch32-aff1]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555817138.ch32-2,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555817138.ch32-2,properties={foaf_givenname=Annie, foaf_name=Annie Luetkemeyer, foaf_surname=Luetkemeyer, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555817138.ch32-aff2]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555817138.ch32-3,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555817138.ch32-3,properties={foaf_givenname=Peter M., foaf_name=Peter M. Small, foaf_surname=Small, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555817138.ch32-aff3]]}]]
Citation: Kato-Maeda M, Luetkemeyer A, Small P. 2011. Tuberculosis Associated with HIV Infection, p 481-497. In Schlossberg D (ed), Tuberculosis and Nontuberculous Mycobacterial Infections, Sixth Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555817138.ch32
/content/10.1128/9781555817138.ch32.ch32table01
Table 1.
Clinical characteristics of tuberculosis in patients coinfected with HIV
Generic image for table
Table 1.

Clinical characteristics of tuberculosis in patients coinfected with HIV

Citation: Kato-Maeda M, Luetkemeyer A, Small P. 2011. Tuberculosis Associated with HIV Infection, p 481-497. In Schlossberg D (ed), Tuberculosis and Nontuberculous Mycobacterial Infections, Sixth Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555817138.ch32
/content/10.1128/9781555817138.ch32.ch32table02
Table 2.
Recommended regimen for tuberculosis treatment
Generic image for table
Table 2.

Recommended regimen for tuberculosis treatment

Citation: Kato-Maeda M, Luetkemeyer A, Small P. 2011. Tuberculosis Associated with HIV Infection, p 481-497. In Schlossberg D (ed), Tuberculosis and Nontuberculous Mycobacterial Infections, Sixth Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555817138.ch32
/content/10.1128/9781555817138.ch32.ch32table03
Table 3.
Dose adjustment required when coadministering rifamycin (rifampin or rifabutin) and antiretroviral drugs ( )
Generic image for table
Table 3.

Dose adjustment required when coadministering rifamycin (rifampin or rifabutin) and antiretroviral drugs ( )

Citation: Kato-Maeda M, Luetkemeyer A, Small P. 2011. Tuberculosis Associated with HIV Infection, p 481-497. In Schlossberg D (ed), Tuberculosis and Nontuberculous Mycobacterial Infections, Sixth Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555817138.ch32

Back to top
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Please check the format of the address you have entered.
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error