Mycoplasma

Frank M. Aarestrup; Isabelle Kempf

doi:10.1128/9781555817534.ch14

Chapter 14 : Mycoplasma

Authors: Frank M. Aarestrup¹, Isabelle Kempf¹

VIEW AFFILIATIONS HIDE AFFILIATIONS

Affiliations: 1: Danish Institute for Food and Veterinary Research, Bülowsvej 27, DK-1790 Copenhagen V, Denmark; 2: Mycoplasmology Bacteriology Unit, French Agency for Food Safety (AFSSA), BP53, F-22440 Ploufragan, France

Content Type: Monograph

Publication Year: 2006

Category: Bacterial Pathogenesis

Book DOI: 10.1128/9781555817534

Chapter DOI: 10.1128/9781555817534.ch14

MyBook is a cheap paperback edition of the original book and will be sold at uniform, low price.

Preview this chapter:

Mycoplasma, Page 1 of 2

< Previous page | Next page > /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555817534/9781555813062_Chap14-1.gif /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555817534/9781555813062_Chap14-2.gif

Abstract:

The main species that cause infections in animals belongs to the genera Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma. In veterinary medicine the most commonly used antimicrobial agents are fluoroquinolones, macrolides, tetracyclines, and tiamulin. Susceptibility testing for Mycoplasma can, as for all other bacterial species, be performed by agar or broth dilution or disk diffusion. Susceptibility testing of mycoplasmas requires special media because of their slow growth and fastidious medium requirements. Worldwide, there have been very few reports on the antimicrobial susceptibility of the different Mycoplasma species. M. synoviae is intrinsically resistant to erythromycin and flumequin. Most studied strains are susceptible to josamycin, spiramycin, lincomycin, tylosin, tilmicosin, tiamulin, danofloxacin, and enrofloxacin. The genetic background for resistance has been studied only with mycoplasmas causing infections in humans. A high frequency of tetracycline resistance has been reported in several Mycoplasma species. Quinolones interfere with DNA replication by binding to DNA gyrase or topoisomerase IV. Resistance to quinolones is caused mainly by mutations in the genes encoding DNA gyrase or topoisomerase IV. Mutations at positions 83, 87, and 119 in gyrA have been frequently found to be associated with quinolone resistance in several gram-negative bacterial species, whereas changes at positions 81 and 84 seem to be infrequently found. There are only a very limited number of reports on the antimicrobial susceptibility of the different Mycoplasma species pathogenic for animals, and there is an obvious need for standardization of methods and interpretation.

Citation: Aarestrup F, Kempf I. 2006. Mycoplasma, p 239-248. In Aarestrup F (ed), Antimicrobial Resistance in Bacteria of Animal Origin. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555817534.ch14

Highlighted Text: Show | Hide

Full text loading...

References

/content/book/10.1128/9781555817534.chap14

1. Aarestrup, F. M.,, and N. F. Friis. 1998. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing of Mycoplasma hyosynoviae isolated from pigs during 1968 to 1971 and during 1995 and 1996. Vet. Microbiol. 61: 33– 39.

2. Aarestrup, F. M.,, N. F. Friis,, and J. Szancer. 1998. Antimicrobial susceptibility of Mycoplasma hyorhinis in a liquid medium compared to a disc assay. Acta Vet. Scand. 39: 145– 147.

3. Ayling, R. D.,, S. E. Baker,, M. L. Peek,, A. J. Simon,, and R. A. J. Nicholas. 2000. Comparison of in vitro activity of danofloxacin, florfenicol, oxytetracycline, spectinomycin and tilmicosin against recent field isolates of Mycoplasma bovis. Vet. Rec. 146: 745– 747.

4. Ball, H. J.,, C. Reilly,, and D. G. Bryson. 1995. Antibiotic susceptibility of Mycoplasma bovis strains isolated in Northern Ireland. Ir. Vet. J. 48: 316– 318.

5. Bébéar, C. M.,, J. M. Bové,, C. Bébéar,, and J. Renaudin. 1997. Characterization of Mycoplasma hominis mutations involved in resistance to fluoroquinolones. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 41: 269– 273.

6. Bébéar, C. M.,, H. Renaudin,, A. Charron,, J. M. Bové,, C. Bébéar,, and J. Renaudin. 1998. Alterations in topoisomerase IV and DNA gyrase in quinolone-resistant mutants of Mycoplasma hominis obtained in vitro. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 42: 2304– 2311.

7. Bébéar, C. M.,, J. Renaudin,, A. Charron,, H. Renaudin,, B. de Barbeyrac,, T. Schaeverbeke,, and C. Bébéar. 1999. Mutations in the gyrA, parC, and parE genes associated with fluoroquinolone resistance in clinical isolates of Mycoplasma hominis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 43: 954– 956.

8. Bébéar, C. M.,, O. Grau,, A. Charron,, H. Renaudin,, D. Gruson,, and C. Bébéar. 2000. Cloning and nucleotide sequence of the DNA gyrase ( gyrA) gene from Mycoplasma hominis and characterization of quinolone resistant mutants selected in vitro with trovafloxacin. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 44: 2719– 2727.

9. Bébéar, C. M.,, and C. Bébéar,. 2002. Antimycoplasmal agents, p. 545– 566. In S. Razin, and R. Herrmann (ed.), Molecular Biology and Pathogenicity of Mycoplasmas. Kluwer Academic/ Plenum, New York, N.Y.

10. Belland, R. J.,, S. G. Morrison,, C. Ison,, and W. M. Huang. 1994. Neisseria gonorrhoeae acquires mutations in analogous regions of gyrA and parC in fluoroquinolone-resistant isolates. Mol. Microbiol. 14: 371– 380.

11. Bousquet, E.,, P. Pommier,, S. Wessel-Robert,, H. Morvan,, H. Benoit-Valiergue,, and A. Laval. 1998. Efficacy of doxycycline in feed for the control of pneumonia caused by Pasteurella multocida and Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae in fattening pigs. Vet. Rec. 143: 269– 272.

12. Bradbury, J. M.,, C. A. Yavari,, and C. J. Giles. 1994. In vitro evaluation of various antimicrobials against Mycoplasma gallisepticum and Mycoplasma synoviae by the micro-broth method, and comparison with a commercially-prepared test system. Avian Pathol. 23: 105– 115.

13. Cao, J.,, P. A. Kapke,, and F. C. Minion. 1994. Transformation of Mycoplasma gallisepticum with Tn916, Tn4001, and integrative plasmid vectors. J. Bacteriol. 176: 4459– 4462.

14. Cerda, R. O.,, G. I. Giacoboni,, J. A. Xavier,, P. L. Sansalone,, and M. F. Landoni. 2002. In vitro antibiotic susceptibility of field isolates of Mycoplasma synoviae in Argentina. Avian Dis. 46: 215– 218.

15. Cooper, A. C.,, J. R. Fuller,, M. K. Fuller,, P. Whittlestone,, and D. R. Wise. 1993. In vitro activity of danofloxacin, tylosin and oxytetracycline against mycoplasmas of veterinary importance. Res. Vet. Sci. 54: 329– 334.

16. de Barbeyrac, B.,, M. Dupon,, P. Rodriguez,, H. Renaudin,, and C. Bébéar. 1996. A Tn1545-like transposon carries the tet(M) gene in tetracycline resistant strains of Bacteroides ureolyticus as well as Ureaplasma urealyticum but not Neisseria gonorrhoeae. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 37: 223– 232.

17. Deguchi, T.,, M. Yasuda,, M. Nakano,, E. Kanematsu,, S. Ozeki,, Y. Nishino,, T. Ezaki,, S. Maeda,, I. Saito,, and Y. Kawada. 1997. Rapid screening of point mutations of the Neisseria gonorrhoeae parC gene associated with resistance to quinolones. J. Clin. Microbiol. 35: 948– 950.

18. Devriese, L. A.,, and F. Haesebrouck. 1991. Antibiotic susceptibility testing of Mycoplasma bovis using Tween 80 hydrolysis as an indicator of growth. Zentbl. Veterinärmed. B 38: 781– 783.

19. Dybvig, K.,, and J. Alderete. 1988. Transformation of Mycoplasma pulmonis and Mycoplasma hyorhinis: transposition of Tn916 and formation of cointegrate structures. Plasmid 20: 33– 41.

20. Ettayebi, M.,, S. M. Prasad,, and E. A. Morgan. 1985. Chloramphenicol-erythromycin resistance mutations in a 23S rRNA gene of Escherichia coli. J. Bacteriol. 162: 551– 557.

21. Ferrero, L.,, B. Cameron,, and J. Crouzet. 1995. Analysis of gyrA and grlA mutations in stepwise-selected ciprofloxacinresistant mutants of Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 39: 1554– 1558.

22. Freundt, E. A., 1983. Culture media for classic mycoplasmes, p. 127– 135. In J. G. Tully, and S. Razin (ed.), Methods in Mycoplasmology. Academic Press, Inc., New York, N.Y.

23. Frey, M. L.,, R. P. Hanson,, and D. P. Anderson. 1968. A medium for isolation of avian mycoplasmas. Am. J. Vet. Res. 29: 2163– 2171.

24. Friis, N. F. 1975. Some recommendations concerning primary isolation of Mycoplasma suipneumoniae and Mycoplasma flocculare: a survey. Nord. Vet. Med. 27: 337– 339.

25. Friis, N. F.,, and J. Szancer. 1994. Sensitivity of certain porcine and bovine mycoplasmas to antimicrobial agents in a liquid medium test compared to a disc assay. Acta Vet. Scand. 35: 389– 394.

26. Furneri, P. M.,, G. Rappazzo,, M. P. Musumarra,, G. Tempera,, and L. S. Roccasalva. 2000. Genetic basis of natural resistance to erythromycin in Mycoplasma hominis. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 45: 547– 548.

27. Furneri, P. M.,, G. Rappazzo,, M. P. Musumarra,, P. Di Pietro,, L. S. Catania,, and L. S. Roccasalva. 2001. Two new point mutations at A2062 associated with resistance to 16-membered macrolide antibiotics in mutant strains of Mycoplasma hominis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 45: 2958– 2960.

28. Gautier-Bouchardon, A. V.,, A. K. Reinhardt,, M. Kobisch,, and I. Kempf. 2002. In vitro development of resistance to enrofloxacin, erythomycin, tylosin, tiamulin and oxytetracycline in Mycoplasma gallisepticum, Mycoplasma synoviae and Mycoplasma iowae. Vet. Microbiol. 88: 47– 58.

29. Glasser, G.,, H. C. Hyman,, and S. Razin,. 1992. Ribosomes, p. 169– 177. In J. Maniloff,, R. N. McElhaney,, L. R. Finch,, and J. B. Baseman (ed.), Mycoplasmas: Molecular Biology and Pathogenesis. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C.

30. Hannan, P. C. T. 2000. Guidelines and recommendations for antimicrobial minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) testing against veterinary mycoplasma species. International Research Programme on Comparative Mycoplasmology. Vet. Res. 31: 373– 395.

31. Hannan, P. C. T.,, G. D. Windsor,, A. de Jong,, N. Schmeer,, and M. Stegemann. 1997. Comparative susceptibilities of various animal-pathogenic mycoplasmas to fluoroquinolones. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 41: 2037– 2040.

32. Hannan, P. C. T.,, P. J. O’Hanlon,, and N. H. Rogers. 1989. In vitro evaluation of various quinolone antibacterial agents against veterinary mycoplasmas and porcine respiratory bacterial pathogens. Res. Vet. Sci. 46: 202– 211.

33. Hirose, K.,, H. Kobayashi,, N. Ito,, Y. Kawasaki,, M. Zako,, K. Kotani,, H. Ogawa,, and H. Sato. 2003. Isolation of Mycoplasmas from nasal swabs of calves affected with respiratory diseases and antimicrobial susceptibility of their isolates. J. Vet. Med. B 50: 347– 351.

34. Hirose, K.,, Y. Kawasaki,, K. Kotani,, K. Abiko,, and H. Sato. 2004. Characterization of a point mutation in the parC gene of Mycoplasma bovirhinis associated with fluoroquinolone resistance. J. Vet. Med. B 51: 169– 175.

35. Inamoto, T.,, H. Takahashi,, K. Yamamoto,, Y. Nakai,, and K. Ogimoto. 1994. Antibiotic susceptibility of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae isolated from swine. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 56: 393– 394.

36. Ito, H.,, H. Yoshida,, M. Bogaki-Shonai,, T. Niga,, H. Hattori,, and S. Nakamura. 1994. Quinolone resistance mutations in the DNA gyrase gyrA and gyrB genes of Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 38: 2014– 2023.

37. Jensen, L. B.,, and F. M. Aarestrup. 2001. Macrolide resistance in Campylobacter coli of animal origin in Denmark. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 45: 371– 372.

38. Jordan, F. T. W., 1990. Avian mycoplasmoses, p. 74– 85. In F. T. W. Jordan (ed.), Poultry Diseases, 3rd ed. Bailliére Tindall, London, United Kingdom.

39. Jordan, F. T. W.,, and D. Knight. 1984. The minimum inhibitory concentration of kitasamycin, tylosin and tiamulin for Mycoplasma gallisepticum and their protective effect on infected chicks. Avian Pathol. 13: 151– 162.

40. Jordan, F. T. W.,, S. Gilbert,, D. L. Knight,, and C. A. Yavari. 1989. Effects of Baytril, tylosin and tiamulin on avian Mycoplasmas. Avian Pathol. 18: 659– 673.

41. Jordan, F. T. W.,, and B. K. Horrocks. 1996. The minimum inhibitory concentration of tilmicosin and tylosin for Mycoplasma gallisepticum and Mycoplasma synoviae and a comparison of their efficacy in the control of Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection in broiler chicks. Avian Dis. 40: 326– 334.

42. Karlsson, M.,, C. Fellstrom,, M. U. Heldtander,, K. E. Johansson,, and A. Franklin. 1999. Genetic basis of macrolide and lincosamide resistance in Brachyspira (Serpulina hyodysenteriae. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 172: 255– 260.

43. Kenny, G. E.,, P. A. Young,, F. D. Cartwright,, K. E. Sjostrom,, and W. M. Huang. 1999. Sparfloxacin selects gyrase mutations in first-step Mycoplasma hominis mutants, whereas ofloxacin selects topoisomerase IV mutations. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 43: 2493– 2496.

44. Kempf, I.,, C. Ollivier,, R. L’Hospitalier,, M. Guittet,, and G. Bennejean. 1989. Concentrations minimales inhibitrices de treize antibiotiques vis-à-vis de 21 souches de mycoplasmes de volailles. Point Vet. 20: 935– 940.

45. Kleven, S. H.,, and D. P. Anderson. 1971. In vitro activity of various antibiotics against Mycoplasma synoviae. Avian Dis. 15: 551– 557.

46. Kobayashi, H.,, N. Sonmez,, T. Morozumi,, K. Mitani,, N. Ito,, H. Shiono,, and K. Yamamoto. 1996. In vitro susceptibility of Mycoplasma hyosynoviae and M. hyorhinis to antimicrobial agents. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 58: 1107– 1111.

47. Kobayashi, H.,, T. Morozumi,, G. Munthali,, K. Mitani,, N. Ito,, and K. Yamamoto. 1996. Macrolide susceptibility of Mycoplasma hyorhinis isolated from piglets. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 40: 1030– 1032.

48. Leclercq, R.,, and P. Courvalin. 1991. Bacterial resistance to macrolide, lincosamide, and streptogramin antibiotics by target modification. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 35: 1267– 1272.

49. Le Grand, D.,, M. A. Arcangioli,, N. Giraud,, F. Poumarat,, and P. Bezille. 2004. Pathologie infectieuse respiratoire chez les bovins: conduite à tenir lors de pneumopathies à mycoplasmes. Point Vet. 249: 40– 42.

50. Levisohn, S. 1981. Antibiotic sensitivity patterns in field isolates of Mycoplasma gallisepticum as a guide to chemotherapy. Isr. J. Med. Sci. 17: 661– 666.

51. Levisohn, S.,, E. Berman,, and Y. Weisman. 1993. Effect of treatment of turkeys under field conditions with tylosin or enrofloxacin on frequency of isolation and sensitivity patterns of Mycoplasma meleagridis. Public Health Res. 20: 183.

52. Loria, G. R.,, C. Sammartino,, R. A. Nicholas,, and R. D. Ayling. 2003. In vitro susceptibilities of field isolates of Mycoplasma agalactiae to oxytetracycline, tylosin, enrofloxacin, spiramycin and lincomycin-spectinomycin. Res. Vet. Sci. 75: 3– 7.

53. Lucier, T. S.,, K. Heitzman,, S. K. Liu,, and P. C. Hu. 1995. Transition mutations in the 23S rRNA of erythromycinresistant isolates of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 39: 2770– 2773.

54. Migaki, T. T.,, A. P. Avakian,, H. J. Barnes,, D. H. Ley,, A. C. Tanner,, and R. A. Magonigle. 1993. Efficacy of danofloxacin and tylosin in the control of mycoplasmosis in chicks infected with tylosin-susceptible or tylosin-resistant field isolates of Mycoplasma gallisepticum. Avian Dis. 37: 508– 514.

55. Nicolet, J. 1996. Animal mycoplasmoses: a general introduction. Rev. Sci. Tech. 15: 1233– 1240.

56. Okazaki, N.,, M. Narita,, S. Yamada,, K. Izumikawa,, M. Umetsu,, T. Kenri,, Y. Sasaki,, Y. Arakawa,, and T. Sasaki. 2001. Characteristics of macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae strains isolated from patients and induced with erythromycin in vitro. Microbiol. Immunol. 45: 617– 620.

57. Pan, X. S.,, J. Ambler,, S. Mehtar,, and L. M. Fisher. 1996. Involvement of topoisomerase IV and DNA gyrase as ciprofloxacin targets in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 40: 2321– 2326.

58. Pereyre, S.,, P. Gonzalez,, B. De Barbeyrac,, A. Darnige,, H. Renaudin,, A. Charron,, S. Raherison,, C. Bébéar,, and C. M. Bébéar. 2002. Mutations in 23S rRNA account for intrinsic resistance to macrolides in Mycoplasma hominis and Mycoplasma fermentans and for acquired resistance to macrolides in M. hominis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 46: 3142– 3150.

59. Pereyre, S.,, C. Guyot,, H. Renaudin,, A. Charron,, C. Bébéar,, and C. M. Bébéar. 2004. In vitro selection and characterization of resistance to macrolides and related antibiotics in Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48: 460– 465.

60. Perichon, B.,, J. Tankovic,, and P. Courvalin. 1997. Characterization of a mutation in the parE gene that confers fluoroquinolone resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 41: 1166– 1167.

61. Piddock, L. J. 2002. Fluoroquinolone resistance in Salmonella serovars isolated from humans and food animals. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 26: 3– 16.

62. Poumarat, F.,, and J. L. Martel. 1989. Mise au point et évaluation d’une méthode opacimétrique pour la détermination de l’antibiosensibilité de Mycoplasma bovis in vitro. Ann. Rech. Vet. 20: 135– 143.

63. Radostits, O. M.,, C. C. Gay,, D. C. Blood,, and K. W. Hinchcliff. 2000. Veterinary Medicine: a Textbook of the Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, Pigs, Goats and Horses, 9th ed. The W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, Pa.

64. Reinhardt, A. K. 2002. Résistance aux fluoroquinolones liée à la cible chez Mycoplasma gallisepticum: sélection de mutants et analyse des mécanismes génétiques. Thèse d’Université. Université de Rennes, Rennes, France.

65. Reinhardt, A. K.,, C. M. Bébéar,, M. Kobisch,, I. Kempf,, and A. V. Gautier-Bouchardon. 2002. Characterization of mutations in DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV involved in quinolone resistance of Mycoplasma gallisepticum mutants obtained in vitro. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 46: 590– 593.

66. Reinhardt, A. K.,, I. Kempf,, M. Kobisch,, and A. V. Gautier- Bouchardon. 2002. Fluoroquinolone resistance in Mycoplasma gallisepticum: DNA gyrase as primary target of enrofloxacin and impact of mutations in topoisomerases on resistance level. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 50: 589– 592.

67. Roberts, M. C. 1990. Characterization of the Tet M determinants in urogenital and respiratory bacteria. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 34: 476– 478.

68. Roberts, M. C., 1992. Antibiotic resistance, p. 513– 523. In J. Maniloff,, R. N. McElhaney,, L. R. Finch,, and J. B. Baseman (ed.), Mycoplasmas: Molecular Biology and Pathogenesis. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C.

69. Roberts, M. C.,, L. A. Koutsky,, K. K. Holmes,, D. J. LeBlanc,, and G. E. Kenny. 1985. Tetracycline-resistant Mycoplasma hominis strains contain streptococcal tetM sequences. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 28: 141– 143.

70. Rosengarten, R.,, C. Citti,, M. Glew,, A. Lischewski,, M. Droesse,, P. Much,, F. Winner,, M. Brank,, and J. Spergser. 2000. Hostpathogen interactions in mycoplasma pathogenesis: virulence and survival strategies of minimalist prokaryotes. Int. J. Med. Microbiol. 290: 15– 25.

71. Ruffin, D. C.,, V. L. van Santen,, Y. Zhang,, L. L. Voelker,, V. S. Panangala,, and K. Dybvig. 2000. Transposon mutagenesis of Mycoplasma gallisepticum by conjugation with Enterococcus faecalis and determination of insertion site by direct genomic sequencing. Plasmid 44: 191– 195.

72. Takahashi, K.,, C. Kuniyasu,, Y. Yoshida,, and E. Momotani. 1978. Sensitivity in vitro to macrolide antibiotics and tetracyclines of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae isolated from pneumonic porcine lungs. Natl. Inst. Anim. Health Q. (Tokyo) 18: 41– 42.

73. Tanner, A. C.,, B. Z. Erickson,, and R. F. Ross. 1993. Adaptation of the Sensititre broth microdilution technique to antimicrobial susceptibility testing of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae. Vet. Microbiol. 36: 301– 306.

74. Tanner, A. C.,, and C. C. Wu. 1992. Adaptation of the Sensititre broth microdilution technique to antimicrobial susceptibility testing of Mycoplasma gallisepticum. Avian Dis. 36: 714– 717.

75. Taylor-Robinson, D., 1995. Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma, p. 652– 662. In P. R. Murray (ed.), Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 6th ed. ASM Press, Washington D.C.

76. ter Laak, E. A.,, A. Pijpers,, J. H. Noordergraaf,, E. C. Schoevers,, and J. H. Verheijden. 1991. Comparison of methods for in vitro testing of susceptibility of porcine Mycoplasma species to antimicrobial agents. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 35: 228– 233.

77. ter Laak, E. A.,, J. H. Noordergraaf,, and M. H. Verschure. 1993. Susceptibilities of Mycoplasma bovis, Mycoplasma dispar, and Ureaplasma diversum strains to antimicrobial agents in vitro. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 37: 317– 321.

78. Thiaucourt, F.,, and G. Bolske. 1996. Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia and other pulmonary mycoplasmoses of sheep and goats. Rev. Sci. Tech. 15: 1397– 1414.

79. Thomas, A.,, C. Nicolas,, I. Dizier,, J. Mainil,, and A. Linden. 2003. Antibiotic susceptibilities of recent isolates of Mycoplasma ovis in Belgium. Vet. Rec. 153: 428– 431.

80. Vester, B.,, and S. Douthwaite. 2001. Macrolide resistance conferred by base substitutions in 23S rRNA. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 45: 1– 12.

81. Vicca, J.,, T. Stakenborg,, D. Maes,, P. Butaye,, J. Peeters,, A. de Kruif,, and F. Haesebrouck. 2004. In vitro susceptibilities of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae field isolates. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48: 4470– 4472.

82. Voelker, L.,, and K. Dybvig. 1996. Gene transfer in Mycoplasma arthritidis: transformation, conjugal transfer of Tn916, and evidence for a restriction system recognizing AGCT. J. Bacteriol. 178: 6078– 6081.

83. Waites, K. B.,, C. M. Bébéar,, J. A. Robertson,, D. F. Talkington,, and G. E. Kenny,. 2001. Cumitech 34, Laboratory Diagnosis of Mycoplasmal Infections. Coordinating ed., F. S. Nolte. American Society for Microbiology, Washington D.C.

84. Wang, C.,, M. Ewing,, and S. Y. Aarabi. 2001. In vitro susceptibility of avian mycoplasmas to enrofloxacin, sarafloxacin, tylosin, and oxytetracycline. Avian Dis. 45: 456– 460.

85. Whithear, K. G.,, D. D. Bowtell,, E. Ghiocas,, and K. L. Hughes. 1983. Evaluation and use of a micro-broth dilution procedure for testing sensitivity of fermentative avian mycoplasmas to antibiotics. Avian Dis. 27: 937– 949.

86. Wu, C. C.,, T. R. Shryock,, T. L. Lin,, M. Faderan,, and M. F. Veenhuizen. 2000. Antimicrobial susceptibility of Mycoplasma hyorhinis. Vet. Microbiol. 76: 25– 30.

87. Yamamoto, K.,, K. Koshimizu,, and M. Ogata. 1986. In vitro susceptibility of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae to antibiotics. Jpn. J. Vet. Sci. 48: 1– 5.

88. Yoshida, H.,, M. Bogaki,, M. Nakamura,, and S. Nakamura. 1990. Quinolone resistance-determining region in the DNA gyrase gyrA gene of Escherichia coli. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 34: 1271– 1272.

89. Zanella, A.,, P., A. Martino, A. Pratelli, and M. Stonfer. 1998. Development of antibiotic resistance in Mycoplasma gallisepticum in vitro. Avian Pathol. 27: 591– 596.

90. Zimmermann, B. J.,, and R. F. Ross. 1975. Determination of sensitivity of Mycoplasma hyosynoviae to tylosin and selected antibacterial drugs by a microtiter technique. Can. J. Comp. Med. 39: 17– 21.

Tables

Mycoplasma

[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555817534.chap14-1,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555817534.chap14-1,properties={foaf_givenname=Frank M., foaf_name=Frank M. Aarestrup, foaf_surname=Aarestrup, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555817534.chap14-aff1]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555817534.chap14-2,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555817534.chap14-2,properties={foaf_givenname=Isabelle, foaf_name=Isabelle Kempf, foaf_surname=Kempf, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555817534.chap14-aff1]]}]]

/content/10.1128/9781555817534.chap14.tab14-1

Table 1.

Pathogenic Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma species, animal hosts, diseases caused, and antimicrobial agents of importance in controlling infections a

Table 1.

Pathogenic Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma species, animal hosts, diseases caused, and antimicrobial agents of importance in controlling infections a

/content/10.1128/9781555817534.chap14.tab14-2

Table 2.

Recommendations for susceptibility testing of veterinary mycoplasmas a

Table 2.

Recommendations for susceptibility testing of veterinary mycoplasmas a

/content/10.1128/9781555817534.chap14.tab14-3

Table 3.

Mutations in 23S rRNA genes conferring macrolide resistance in Mycoplasma spp.

Table 3.

Mutations in 23S rRNA genes conferring macrolide resistance in Mycoplasma spp.

/content/10.1128/9781555817534.chap14.tab14-4

Table 4.

Amino acid substitutions associated with fluoroquinolone resistance in Mycoplasma spp.

Table 4.

Amino acid substitutions associated with fluoroquinolone resistance in Mycoplasma spp.