1887

Chapter 7 : Pathological Consequences of Commensalism

Authors: Agnes E. Wold1, Ingegerd Adlerberth1
VIEW AFFILIATIONS HIDE AFFILIATIONS
Affiliations: 1: Department of Clinical Immunology, Göteborg University, Guldhedsgatan 10, S-413 46 Göteborg, Sweden
Content Type: Monograph
Publication Year: 2000

Category: Bacterial Pathogenesis

MyBook is a cheap paperback edition of the original book and will be sold at uniform, low price.

Preview this chapter:
Preview Magnify
Zoom in
Zoomout

Pathological Consequences of Commensalism, Page 1 of 2

| /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555818104/9781555811594_Chap07-1.gif /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555818104/9781555811594_Chap07-2.gif

Abstract:

This chapter discusses the classical distinguishing characteristics of persistent pathogens, that they elicit host responses, including inflammation, and that they have the capacity to damage the host, are increasingly being associated with the so-called commensal flora as well. The focus is mainly on the normal flora of the gastrointestinal tract. All external and certain, but not all, internal body surfaces are covered by a film of microorganisms, a normal microflora. The upper respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, perineum, vagina, and distal urethra contain large resident bacterial populations, while the bronchi, alveolar spaces, urinary tract, and uterus are normally sterile. Macrophages from animals colonized by a microflora also display increased cytotoxic activity, secrete more oxygen radicals, have increased levels of cyclic AMP, and produce more interleukin 1 (IL-1), IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor alpha in response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) than macrophages from germfree animals. Intestinal immune responses are mainly induced in the Peyer's patches, which are mucosal lymphoid nodules covered by a specialized epithelium, the follicle-associated epithelium. Oral tolerance also protects us from exaggerated responsiveness, including inflammatory responses to antigens which are not dangerous, and thus minimizes the risk of inflammatory states in the mucosa. Colon cancer is one of the most common neoplastic diseases in wealthy populations but is relatively uncommon in developing countries. Staphylococci have been implicated in the pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis. Evidently, the epidemiological connection between the intestinal colonization pattern and allergy development needs to be further studied.

Citation: Wold A, Adlerberth I. 2000. Pathological Consequences of Commensalism, p 115-144. In Nataro J, Blaser M, Cunningham-Rundles S (ed), Persistent Bacterial Infections. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555818104.ch7

Key Concept Ranking

Major Histocompatibility Complex Class II
0.41389108
0.41389108
Highlighted Text: Show | Hide
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

Figures

Pathological Consequences of Commensalism
[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555818104.chap7-1,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555818104.chap7-1,properties={foaf_givenname=Agnes E., foaf_name=Agnes E. Wold, foaf_surname=Wold, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555818104.chap7-aff1]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555818104.chap7-2,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555818104.chap7-2,properties={foaf_givenname=Ingegerd, foaf_name=Ingegerd Adlerberth, foaf_surname=Adlerberth, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555818104.chap7-aff1]]}]]
Citation: Wold A, Adlerberth I. 2000. Pathological Consequences of Commensalism, p 115-144. In Nataro J, Blaser M, Cunningham-Rundles S (ed), Persistent Bacterial Infections. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555818104.ch7
/content/10.1128/9781555818104.chap7.fig7-1
FIGURE 1

Normal floras of the human body. The bacterial population densities of different external (bacteria per square centimeter) or internal (bacteria per gram o f contents) surfaces of the human body are indicated as follows: > 10 bacteria, black; 10to 10, hatched; 10to 10, lightly hatched; 10to 10, dotted.

10.1128/9781555818104/fig7-1_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555818104/fig7-1.gif
Image of FIGURE 1
FIGURE 1

Normal floras of the human body. The bacterial population densities of different external (bacteria per square centimeter) or internal (bacteria per gram o f contents) surfaces of the human body are indicated as follows: > 10 bacteria, black; 10to 10, hatched; 10to 10, lightly hatched; 10to 10, dotted.

Citation: Wold A, Adlerberth I. 2000. Pathological Consequences of Commensalism, p 115-144. In Nataro J, Blaser M, Cunningham-Rundles S (ed), Persistent Bacterial Infections. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555818104.ch7
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555818104.chap7.fig7-2
FIGURE 2

Normal pattern of acquisition of the normal intestinal microflora by the newborn infant, a process which proceeds during the first years of life.

10.1128/9781555818104/fig7-2_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555818104/fig7-2.gif
Image of FIGURE 2
FIGURE 2

Normal pattern of acquisition of the normal intestinal microflora by the newborn infant, a process which proceeds during the first years of life.

Citation: Wold A, Adlerberth I. 2000. Pathological Consequences of Commensalism, p 115-144. In Nataro J, Blaser M, Cunningham-Rundles S (ed), Persistent Bacterial Infections. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555818104.ch7
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint

References

/content/book/10.1128/9781555818104.chap7
1. Abrams, G.D., 1983. Impact of the intestinal microfloraon intestinal structure and function, p. 291– 309. In D. J. Hentges (ed.), Human Intestinal Microflora in Health and Disease. Academic Press, London, United Kingdom.
2. Abrams, G. D.,, H. Bauer,, and H. Sprinz. 1963. Influence of the normal flora on mucosal morphology and cellular renewal in the ileum. A comparison of germfree and conventional mice. Lab. Investig. 12: 355– 364.
3. Adlerberth, I.,, S. Ahrné,, M.-L. Johansson,, G. Molin,, L. A. Hanson,, and A. E. Wold. 1996. A mannose-specific adherence mechanism in Lactobacillus plantarum conferring binding to the human colonic cell line HT-29. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62: 2244– 2251.
4. Adlerberth, L.,, B. Carlsson,, P. deMan,, F. Jalil,, S. R. Khan,, P. Larsson,, L. Mellander,, C. Svanborg,, A. E. Wold,, and L. Å. Hanson. 1991. Intestinal colonization with Enterobacteriaceae in Pakistani and Swedish hospital-delivered infants. Acta Paediatr. Scand. 80: 602– 610.
5. Adlerberth, I.,, L. A. Hanson,, C. Svanborg,, A.-M. Svennerholm,, S. Nordgren,, and A. E. Wold. 1995. Adhesins of Escherichia coli associated with extraintestinal pathogenicity confer binding to colonic epithelial cells. Microb. Pathog. 18: 373– 385.
6. Adlerberth, L.,, L. A. Hanson,, and A. E. Wold,. 1999. The ontogeny of theintestinal flora, p. 279– 292. In I. R. Sanderson, and W. A. Walker (ed.), Development of the Gastrointestinal Tract. B. C. Decker, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
7. Adlerberth, I.,, F. Jalil,, B. Carlsson,, L. Mellander,, L. Å. Hanson,, P. Larsson,, K. Kahlil,, and A. E. Wold. 1998. High turn-over rate of Escherichia coli strains in the intestinal flora of infants in Pakistan. Epidemiol. Infect. 121: 587– 598.
8. Adlerberth, I.,, C. Svanborg,, B. Carlsson,, L. Mellander,, L. A. Hanson,, F. Jalil,, K. Khalil,, and A. E. Wold. 1998. P fimbriae and other adhesins enhance intestinal persistence of Escherichia coli in early infancy. Epidemiol. Infect. 121: 599– 608.
9. Ahrné, S.,, S. Nobaek,, B. Jeppsson,, I. Adlerberth,, A. E. Wold,, and G. Molin. 1998. The normal Lactobacillus flora of healthy human oral and rectal mucosa. J. Appl Microbiol. 85: 88– 94.
10. Albers, W. H.,, C. W. Tyler,, and B. Boxerbaum. 1966. Asymptomatic bacteremia in the newborn infant. J. Pediatr. 69: 193– 197.
11. Alverdy, J.C.,, E. Aoyos,, and G. S. Moss. 1988. Total parenteral nutritionpromotes bacterial translocation from the gut. Surgery 104: 185– 190.
12. Aranda, R.,, B. C. Sydora,, P. L. McAllister,, S. W. Binder,, H. Y. Yang,, S. R. Targan,, and M. Kronenberg. 1997. Analysis of intestinal lymphocytes in mouse colitis mediated by transfer of CD4 + CD45RB high T cells into SCID recipients. J. Immunol 158: 3464– 3473.
13. Ashraf, R. N.,, F. Jalil,, S. Zaman,, J. Karlberg,, S. R. Khan,, B. S. Lindblad,, and L. A. Hanson. 1991. Breast feeding and protection against neonatal sepsis in a high risk population. Arch. Dis. Child. 66: 488– 490.
14. Asquith, M. T.,, and J. R. Harrod. 1979. Reduction in bacterial contamination in banked human milk. J. Pediatr. 95: 993– 994.
15. Bark, T.,, M. Katouli,, O. Ljungqvist,, R. Mollby,, and T. Svenberg. 1993. Bacterial translocationafter non-lethal hemorrhage in the rat. Circ. Shock 41: 60– 65.
16. Bennet, R. 1987. The Faecal Microflora of Newborn Infants During Intensive Care Management, and Its Relationship to Neonatal Septicemia. Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden.
17. Bennet, R.,, M. Eriksson,, N. Tafari, and C - E. Nord. 1991. Intestinal bacteria of newborn Ethiopian infants in relation to antibiotic treatment and colonization with potentially pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 23: 63– 69.
18. Bennet, R.,, M. Eriksson,, B. Melen,, and R. Zetterstrom. 1985. Changes in the incidence and spectrum of neonatal septicemia during a fifteen- year period. Acta Paediatr. Scand. 74: 687– 690.
19. Berg, R. D., 1983. Translocation of indigenous bacteria from the intestinal tract, p. 333— 352. In D. J. Hentges (ed.), Intestinal Microflora in Health and Disease. Academic Press, New York, N.Y.
20. Berg, R. D.,, E. Wommack,, and E. A. Deitch. 1988. Immunosuppression and intestinal bacterial overgrowth synergistically promote bacterial translocation. Arch. Surg. 123: 1359– 1364.
21. Bettelheim, K. A.,, B. A. Peddie,, and A. Cheresky. 1983. The ecology of Escherichia coli in a maternity ward in Christchurch, New Zealand. Zentbl Bakteriol. Mikrobiol. Hyg. 178: 389– 393.
22. Bibel, D. J. 1988. Elie Metchnikoffs bacillus of long life. ASM News 54: 661– 665.
23. Bishop, R. F.,, and C. M. Anderson. 1960. The bacterial flora of the stomach and small intestine in children with intestinal obstruction. Arch. Dis. Child. 35: 487– 491.
24. Blumberg, R. S.,, C. E. Yockey,, G. G. Gross,, E. C. Ebert,, and S. P. Balk. 1993. Human intestinal intraepithelial lymphocytes are derived from a limited number of T cell clones that utilize multiple V beta T cell receptor genes. J. Immunol 150: 5144– 5153.
25. Bollgren, I.,, and J. Winberg. 1976. The periurethral aerobic bacterial flora in healthy boys and girls. Acta Paediatr. Scand. 65: 74– 80.
26. Bollgren, I.,, and J. Winberg. 1976. The periurethral aerobic flora in girls highly susceptible to urinary tract infections. Acta Paediatr. Scand. 65: 81– 87.
27. Border, J.,, J. Hassett,, J. La Duca,, R. Seibel,, S. Steinberg,, B. Mills,, P. Losi,, and D. Border. 1987. The gut origin septic states in blunt multiple trauma (ISS = 40) in the ICU. Ann. Surg. 206: 427– 448.
28. Borderon, J.C.,, C. Lionnet,, C. Rondeau,, A. L. Sue,, J. Laugier,, and F. Gold. 1996. Current aspects of the fecal flora of the newborn without antibiotherapy during the first seven days of life: Enterobacteriaceae, enterococci, staphylococci. Pathol Biol. Paris 44: 416– 422.
29. Brandtzaeg, P., 1994. Distribution andcharacterization of mucosal immunoglobulin-producing cells, p. 251– 262. In P. L. Ogra (ed.), Handbook of Mucosal Immunology. Academic Press, San Diego, Calif.
30. Braun-Farlander, C.,, M. Gassner,, L. Grize,, U. Neu,, F. H. Sennhauser,, H. S. Varonier,, J. C. Vuille,, and B. Wutrich. 1999. Prevalence of hay fever and allergic sensitization in farmer's children and their peers living in the same rural community. SCARPOL team. Swiss Study on Childhood Allergy and Respiratory Symptoms with Respect to Air Pollution. Clin. Exp. Allergy 2 9: 28– 34.
31. Bry, L.,, P. G. Falk,, T. Midtvedt,, and J. I. Gordon. 1996. A model of host-microbial interactions in an open mammalian ecosystem. Science 273: 1380– 1383.
32. Buddington, R. K.,, C. H. Williams,, S. C. Chen,, and S. A. Witherly. 1996. Dietary supplementation of neosugars alters the fecal flora and decreases activities of some reductive enzymes in human subjects. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 63: 709– 716.
33. Burkitt, D.P. 1971. Epidemiology of cancer of the colonand rectum. 1971. Dis. Colon Rectum 36: 1071– l1082.
34. Carter, P. B.,, and M. Pollard. 1971. Host responses to “normal” microbial flora in germ-free mice. J. Reticuloendothel. Soc. 9: 580– 587.
35. Cebra, J.J. 1999. Influences of microbiota onintestinal immune system development. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 69( Suppl.): 1046S– 1051S.
36. Cebra, J.J.,, J. A. Cebra-Thomas,, C. F. CufF,, A. George,, S. I. Kost,, S. D. London,, and D. H. Rubin. 1989. Reoviruses as probes of the gut mucosal T cell population. Immunol. Investig. 18: 545– 585.
37. Chachaty, E.,, C. Depitre,, N. Mario, et al. 1992. Presence of Clostridiumdifficile and antibiotic and β-lactamase activities in feces of volunteers treatedwith oral cefixime, oral cefpodoxime proxetil, or placebo. Antimicrob. AgentsChemother. 36: 2009– 2013.
38. Cherbut, C.,, L. Ferrier,, C. Roze,, Y. Anini,, H. Blottiere,, G. Lecannu,, and J. P. Galmiche. 1998. Short-chain fatty acids modify colonic motility through nerves and polypeptide YY release in the rat. Am. J. Physiol. 275: G1415– G1422.
39. Cherbuy, C.,, B. Darcy-Vrillon,, M. T. Morel,, J. P. Pegorier,, and P. H. Duee. 1995. Effect of germfree state onthe capacities of isolated rat colonocytes to metabolize n-butyrate, glucose, and glutamine. Gastroenterology 109: 1890– 1899.
40. Chouaib, S.,, K. Welte,, R. Mertelsmann,, and B. Dupont. 1985. Prostaglandin E2 acts at two distinct pathways of lymphocyte activation: inhibition of interleukin 2 production and downregulation of transferrin receptor expression. J. Immunol. 135: 1172– 1179.
41. Collins, F. M.,, and P. B. Carter. 1978. Growth of salmonellae in orally infected germfree mice. Infect. Immun. 21: 41– 47.
42. Cone, R.A., 1999. Mucus, p. 43– 64. In P. L. Ogra,, J. Mestecky,, M. E. Lamm,, W. Strober,, J. Bienenstock,, and J. R. McGhee (ed.), Mucosal Immunology. Academic Press, San Diego, Calif.
43. Cong, Y.,, S. L. Brandwein,, R. P. McGabe,, A. Lazenby,, E. H. Birkenmeier,, J. P. Sundberg,, and C. O. Elson. 1998. CD4 + T cells reactive to enteric bacterial antigens in spontaneously colitic C3H/HeJBir mice: increased T helper cell type 1 response and ability to transfer disease. J. Exp. Med. 187: 855– 864.
44. Cooke, E.M., 1974. Escherichia coli:distribution in nature, epidemiology , p. 13– 3 . In E. M. Cooke (ed.), Escherichia coli and Man. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
45. Cooke, E. M.,, I. G. T. Hettiaratchy,, and A. C. Buck. 1971. Fate of ingested Escherichia coli in normal persons. J. Med. Microbiol. 5: 361– 369.
46. Cover, T. L.,, and M. J. Blaser. 1996. H. pylori infection, a paradigm for chronic mucosal inflammation: pathogenesis and implications for eradication and prevention. Adv. Intern. Med. 42: 85– 117.
47. Crabbé, P. A.,, H. Bazin,, H. Eyssen,, and J. F. Heremans. 1968. The normal microbial flora as a major stimulus for proliferation of plasma cells synthesizing IgA in the gut. Int. Arch. Allergy 34: 362– 375.
48. Crabbé, P. A.,, D. R. Nash,, H. Bazin,, H. Eysseb,, and J. F. Heremans. 1970. Immunohistochemical observations on lymphoid tissues from conventional and germ-free mice. Lab. Investig. 22: 448– 457.
49. Craig, S.,, and J. Cebra. 1971. Peyer's patches: an enriched source of precursors for IgA-producing immunocytes in the rabbit. J. Exp. Med. 134: 188– 200.
50. Croft, C. N.,, and P. B. Cotton. 1973. Gastrointestinal cell loss in man. Digestion 8: 144– 160.
51. Dahlgren, U. I. H.,, A. E. Wold,, L. A. Hanson,, and T. Midtvedt. 1991. Expression of a dietary protein in E. coli renders it strongly antigenic to gut lymphoid tissue. Immunology 73: 394– 397.
52. deMaria, R.,, S. Fais,, M. Silvestri,, L. Frati,, F. Pallone,, A. Santoni,, and R. Testi. 1993. Continuous in-vivo activation and transient hyporesponsiveness to TcR/CD3 triggering of human gut lamina propria lymphocytes. Eur. J. Immunol. 23: 3104– 3108.
53. Dhar, S.,, A. J. Kanwar,, S. Kaur,, P. Sharma,, and N. K. Ganguly. 1992. Role of bacterial flora in the pathogenesis and management of atopic dermatitis. Indian J. Med. Res. 95: 234– 238.
54. Dixon, J. M. S. 1960. The fate of bacteria in the small intestine. J. Pathol. Bacteriol 79: 131– 140.
55. Donald, I. P.,, G. Kitchingmam,, F. Donald,, and R. M. Kupfer. 1992. The diagnosis of small bowel bacterial overgrowth in elderly patients. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 40: 692– 696.
56. Drasar, B.S., 1974. Some factors associated withgeographical variations in the intestinal microflora, p. 187– 196. In F. A. Skinner, and F. A. Carr (ed.), The Normal Microbial Flora of Man. Academic Press, London, United Kingdom.
57. Drasar, B. S.,, M. Shiner,, and G. M. McLeod. 1969. Studies on the intestinal flora. I. The bacterial flora of the gastrointestinal tract in healthy and achlorhydric persons. Gastroenterology 56: 71– 79.
58. Duchmann, R.,, I. Kaiser,, E. Hermann,, W. Mayet,, K. Ewe,, and K.-H. Meyer Zum. 1995. Tolerance exists towards resident intestinal flora but is broken in active inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Clin. Exp. Immunol. 102: 448.
59. Duguid, J.P.,, and D. C. Old,. 1980. Adhesive properties of Enterobacteriaceae, p. 185– 217. In E. C. Beachey (ed.), Bacterial Adherence, Receptors and Recognition. Chapman & Hall, London, United Kingdom.
60. Duncan, R. L. J.,, and D. C. Morrison. 1984. The fate of E. coli lipopolysaccharide after the uptake of E. coli by murine macrophages in vitro. J. Immunol. 132: 1416– 1424.
61. Eerola, E.,, T. Mottonen,, P. Hannonen,, L. R. I. Kantola,, K. Vuori,, J. Tuominen,, and P. Toivanen. 1994. Intestinal flora in early rheumatoid arthritis. Br. J. Rheumatol. 33: 1030– 1038.
62. Ellis-Pegler, R. B.,, C. Crabtree,, and H. P. Lambert. 1975. The fecal flora of children in the United Kingdom. J. Hyg. Camb. 75: 135– 142.
63. El Mohandes, A. E.,, J. F. Keiser,, L. A. Johnson,, M. Refat,, and B. J. Jackson. 1993. Aerobes isolated in fecal microflora of infants in the intensive care nursery: relationship to human milk use and systemic sepsis. Am. J. Infect. Control 21: 231– 234.
64. Elson, C. O.,, and W. Ealding. 1984. Cholera toxin feeding did not induce oral tolerance in mice and abrogated oral tolerance to an unrelated protein antigen. J. Immunol. 133: 2892– 2897.
65. Elson, C. O.,, R. B. Sartor,, G. S. Tennyson,, and R. H. Riddell. 1995. Experimental models of inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 109: 1344– 1367.
66. Finegold, S. M.,, H. R. Attebery,, and V. L. Sutter. 1974. Effect of diet on human fecal flora: comparison of Japanese and American diets. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 27: 1456.
67. Finegold, S. M.,, L. Ingram-Drake,, R. Gee,, J. Reinhardt,, M. A. Edelstein,, K. MacDonald,, and H. Wexler. 1987. Bowel flora changes in humans receiving cefixime (CL 284,635) or cefaclor. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 31: 443– 446.
68. Finegold, S. M.,, V. L. Sutter,, and G. E. Mathiesen,. 1983. Normal indigenous intestinal flora, p. 3— 31. In D. J. Hentges (ed.), Human Intestinal Microflora in Health and Disease. Academic Press, London, United Kingdom.
69. Firon, N.,, I. Ofek,, and N. Sharon. 1983. Carbohydrate specificity of the surface lectins of Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Salmonella typhimurium. Carbohydr. Res. 120: 235– 249.
70. Frankel, W. L.,, W. Zhang,, A. Singh,, D. M. Klurfeld,, S. Don,, S. Sakata,, I. Modlin,, and J. L. Rombeau. 1994. Mediation of the trophic effects of short-chain fatty acids on the rat jejunum and colon. Gastroenterology 106: 375– 380.
71. Freter, R. 1969. Studies on themechanism of action of intestinal antibody in experimental cholera. TexasRep. Biol. Med. 27 (Suppl.): 299– 316.
72. Freter, R., 1983. Mechanisms that control the microflora of the large intestine, p. 33— 54. In D. J. Hentges (ed.), Human Intestinal Microflora in Health and Disease. Academic Press, New York, N.Y.
73. Freter, R.,, E. Stauffer,, D. Cleven,, L. V. Holdeman,, and W. E. C. Moore. 1983. Continuous- flow cultures as in vitro models of the ecology of large intestinal flora. Infect. Immun. 39: 666— 675.
74. Friedel, D.,, and G. M. Levine. 1992. Effect of short-chain fatty acid on colonic function and structure. J. Parenter. Enteral Nutr. 16: 1– 4.
75. Friman, V.,, I. Adlerberth,, H. Connell,, C. Svanborg,, L. A. Hanson,, and A. E. Wold. 1996. Decreased expression of mannose-specific adhesins by Escherichia coli in the colonic microflora of IgA-deficient individuals. Infect. Immun. 64: 2794– 2798.
76. Fryklund, B. 1994. Epidemiologyof Enterobacteria and Risk Factors for Invasive Gram-Negative Bacterial Infection in NeonatalSpecial-Care Units. Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden.
77. Fryklund, B.,, K. Tullus,, B. Berglund,, and L. G. Burman. 1992. Importance of the environment and the faecal flora of infants, nursing staff and parents as sources of Gram-negative bacteria colonizing newborns in three neonatal wards. Infection 20: 253– 257.
78. Fryklund, B.,, K. Tullus,, and L. G. Burman. 1994. Epidemiology and attack index of gramnegative bacteria causing invasive infection in three special-care neonatal units and risk factors for infection. Infection 23: 76– 80.
79. Fukushima, K.,, I. Sasaki,, H. Ogawa,, H. Naito,, Y. Funayama,, and S. Matsuno. 1999. Colonization of microflora in mice: mucosal defense against luminal bacteria. J. Gastroenterol. 34: 54– 60.
80. Fukushima, R.,, L. Gianotti,, J. W. Alexander,, and T. Pyles. 1992. The degree ofbacterial translocation is a determinant factor for mortality after burn injury and is improved by prostaglandin analogs. Ann. Surg. 216: 438– 445.
81. Gaborieau-Routhiau, V.,, and M.-C. Moreau. 1996. Gut flora allows recovery of oral tolerance to ovalbumin in mice after transient breakdown mediated by cholera toxin or Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin. Pediatr. Res. 39: 625– 629.
82. Garnet, L.,, D. Daviaud,, C. Denis-Pouxviel,, C. Remesy,, and J. C. Murat. 1992. Effects of short-chain fatty acids on growth and differentiation of the human colon-cancer cell line HT-29. Int. J. Cancer 52: 286– 289.
83. Gareau, F. E.,, D. C. Mackel,, J. Boring III,, F. J. Payne,, and F. L. Hammet. 1959. The acquisition of fecal flora by infants from their mothers during birth. J. Pediatr. 54: 313— 318.
84. Goldin, B.R. 1990. Intestinal microflora: metabolism of drugs andcarcinogens. Ann. Med. 22: 43– 48.
85. Goldstein, F.,, C. W. Wirts,, and O. D. Kowlessar. 1970. Diabetic diarrhea and steatorrhea. Microbiologic and clinical observations. Ann. Intern. Med. 72: 215– 218.
86. Gorbach, S.L.,, and B. R. Goldin. 1990. The intestinal microfloraand the colon cancer connection. Rev. Infect. Dis. 12( Suppl. 2): S252– S261
87. Gordon, H. A.,, and E. Bruckner-Kardoss. 1961. Effect of normal microbial flora on intestinal surface area. Am. J. Physiol. 201: 175– 178.
88. Gothefors, L. 1975. Studies of Antimicrobial Factors in Human Milk and Bacterial Colonization of the Newbom. Umea University, Umea, Sweden.
89. Gothefors, L.,, B. Carlsson,, S. Ahlstedt,, L. A, Hanson, and J. Winberg. 1976. Influence of maternal gut flora and colostral and cord serum antibodies on presence of Escherichia coli in faeces of the newborn infant. Acta Paediatr. Scand. 65: 225– 232 .
90. Gracey, M., 1984. The intestinal microflora in malnutrition and protracted diarrhoea in infancy, p. 223— 236. In E. Lebenthal (ed.), Chronic Diarrhea in Children. Raven Press, New York, N.Y.
91. Grantors, K.,, S. Jalkanen,, A. A. Lindberg,, O. Maki-Ikola,, R. von Essen,, R. Lahesmaa-Rantala,, H. Isomaki,, R. Saario,, W. J. Arnold,, and A. Toivanen. 1990. Salmonella lipopolysaccharide in synovial cells from patients with reactive arthritis. Lancet 335: 685– 688.
92. Griffin, W. O., Jr.,, J. D. Richardson,, and E. S. Medley. 1971. Prevention of small bowel contamination by ileocecal valve. South. Med. J. 64: 1056– 1058.
93. Grüneberg, R. N. 1969. Relationship of infecting urinary organisms to the faecal flora in patients with symptomatic urinary infections. Lancet ii: 766– 768.
94. Guiot, H. F. L. 1982. Role of competition for substrate in bacterial antagonism in the gut. Infect. Immun. 38: 887– 892.
95. Hashimoto, K.,, H. Handa,, K. Umehara,, and S. Sasaki. 1978. Germfree mice reared on an “antigen free” diet. Lab. Anim. Sci. 28: 38– 45.
96. Hathcock, K. S.,, G. Laszlo,, C. Pucillo,, P. Linsley,, and R. J. Hodes. 1994. Comparative analysis of B7-1 and B 7-2 costimulatory ligands: expression and function. J. Exp. Med. 180: 631– 640.
97. Hauer, A. C.,, M. Bajaj-Elliot,, C. B. Williams,, J. A. Walker-Smith,, and T. T. MacDonald. 1998. An analysis of interferon gamma, IL-4, IL-5 and IL-10 production by ELISPOT and quantitative reverse transcriptase-PCR in human Peyer's patches. Cytokine 10: 627– 634.
98. Hauer, A. C.,, E. J. Breese,, J. A. Walker- Smith,, and T. T. MacDonald. 1997. The frequency of cells secreting interferon-gamma and interleukin-4, -5, and -10 in the blood and duodenal mucosa of children with cow's milk hypersensitivity. Pediatr. Res. 42: 629– 638.
99. Hendrickson, B. A.,, J. Guo,, R. Laughlin,, Y. M. Chen,, and J. C. Alverdy. 1999. Increased type 1 fimbrial expression among commensal Escherichia coli isolates in the murine cecum following catabolic stress. Infect. Immun. 67: 745– 753.
100. Henriksson, A. E.,, L. Blomquist,, C. E. Nord,, T. Midtvedt,, and A. Uribe. 1993. Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 52: 503– 510.
101. Hentges, D.J. 1978. Fecal flora of volunteers oncontrolled diets. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 31: S123– S124.
102. Hentges, D.J. 1993. The anaerobic microflora of thehuman body. Clin. Infect. Dis. 16( Suppl. 4): 175– 180.
103. Herías, M. V. 1998. Colonization, Translocation and Immune Responses in a Gnotobiotic Rat Model. Göteborg University, Goteborg, Sweden.
104. Herías, M. V.,, T. Midtvedt,, L. A. Hanson,, and A. E. Wold. 1995. Role of Escherichia coli P fimbriae in intestinal colonization in gnotobiotic rats. Infect. Immun. 63: 4781– 4789.
105. Herías, M. V.,, T. Midtvedt,, L. A. Hanson,, and A. E. Wold. 1997. Escherichia coli K5 capsule expression enhances colonization of the large intestine in the gnotobiotic rat. Infect. Immun. 65: 531– 536.
106. Herías, M. V.,, T. Midtvedt,, L. A. Hanson,, and A. E. Wold. 1998. Increased antibody production against gut-colonizing Escherichia coli in the presence of the anaerobic bacterium Peptostreptococcus. Scand. J. Immunol. 48: 277– 282.
107. Herman, A.,, J. Kappler,, P. Marrack,, and A. Pullen. 1991. Superantigens: mechanism of Tcell stimulation and role in immune responses. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 9: 745– 772.
108. Hohmann, A.,, G. Schmidt,, and D. Rowley. 1979. Intestinal and serum antibody responses in mice after oral immunization with Salmonella, Escherichia coli, and Salmonella-Escherichia coli hybrid strains. Infect. Immun. 25: 27– 33.
109. Hoijer, M. A.,, M.-J. Melief,, C. G. van Helden-Meeuwsen,, F. Eulderink,, and M. Hazenberg. 1995. Detection of muramic acid in a carbohydrate fraction of human spleen. Infect. Immun. 63: 1652– 1657.
110. Holdeman, L. V.,, I. J. Good,, and W. E. C. Moore. 1976. Human fecal flora: variation in bacterial composition within individuals and a possible effect of emotional stress. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 31: 359– 375.
111. Holt, P. G.,, J. Oliver,, N. Bilyk,, C. McMenamin,, P. G. McMenamin,, G. Kraal,, and T. Thepen. 1993. Downregulation of the antigen presenting cell function(s) of pulmonary dendritic cells in vivo by resident alveolar macrophages., J. Exp. Med. 177: 397– 407.
112. Hoogkamp-Korstanje, J. A. A.,, J. G. E. M. Lindner,, J. H. Marcells,, H. den Daas-Slagt,, and N. M. de Vos. 1979. Composition and ecology of the human intestinal flora. Antonie Leeuwenhoek 45: 335– 340.
113. Hooper, D. C.,, E. H. Molowitz,, N. A. Bos,, V. A. Ploplis,, and J. J. Cebra. 1995. Spleen cells from antigen-minimized mice are superior to spleen cells from germ-free and conventional mice in the stimulation of primary in vitro proliferative responses to nominal antigens. Eur.J. Immunol. 25: 212– 217.
114. Hoskins, L. C. 1993. Mucin degradation in the human gastrointestinal tract and its significance to enteric microbial ecology. Eur. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 5: 205– 213.
115. Husby, S.,, J. C. Jensenius,, and S.-E. Svehag. 1985. ELISA quantitation of IgG subclass antibodies to dietary antigens. J. Immunol. Methods 82: 321– 331.
116. Husby, S.,, J. C. Jensenius,, and S.-E. Svehag. 1985. Passage of undegraded dietary antigen into the blood of healthy adults. Quantification, estimation of size distribution and relation of uptake to levels of specific antibodies. Scand. J. Immunol. 22: 83– 92.
117. Husebye, E.,, P. M. Hellström,, and T. Midtvedt. 1992. Introduction of conventional microbial flora to germfree rats increases the frequency of migrating myoelectric complexes. J. Gastrointest. Motil. 4: 39– 45.
118. Husebye, E.,, V. Skar,, T. Hoverstad,, and K. Melby. 1992. Fasting hypochlorhydria with gram positive gastric flora is highly prevalent in healthy old people. Gut 33: 1331– 1337.
119. Johannsen, L.,, and J. M. Krueger. 1988. Quantitation of diaminopimelic acid in human urine. Adv. Biosci. 68: 445– 449.
120. Johannsen, L.,, J. Wecke,, F. Obal,, and J. Krueger. 1991. Macrophages producesomnogenic and pyrogenic muramyl peptides during digestion of staphylococci. Am. J. Physiol. 260: R126– R133.
121. Johnson, W. J.,, and E. Balish. 1980. Macrophage function in germ-free, athymic (nu/nu) and conventional flora (nu + ) mice. J. Reticuloendothel. Soc. 28: 55– 66.
122. Kanerud, L.,, A. Scheynius,, C. E. Nord,, and I. Hafstrom. 1994. Effect of sulphasalazine on gastrointestinal microflora and on mucosal heat shock protein expression in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Br. J. Rheumatol. 33: 1039– 1048.
123. Katouli, M.,, C. G. Nettlebladt,, V. Muratov,, O. Ljungqvist,, T. Bark,, T. Svenberg,, and R. Mollby. 1997. Selective translocation of conform bacteria adhering to caecal epithelium of rats during catabolic stress. J. Med. Microbiol. 46: 1– 8.
124. Kawaguchi, M.,, M. Nanno,, Y. Umesaki,, S. Matsumoto,, Y. Okada,, Z. Cai,, T. Shimamura,, Y. Matsuoka,, M. Ohwaki,, and H. Ishikawa. 1993. Cytolytic activity of intestinal intraepithelial lymphocytes in germ-free mice is strain dependent and determined by T cells expressing gamma delta T-cell antigen receptors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90: 8591– 8594.
125. Keller, R.,, R. Gehri,, and R. Keist. 1994. Macrophage response to viruses, protozoa, and fungi: secretory and cellular activities induced in resting unprimed bone marrow-derived mononuclear phagocytes. Cell. Immunol. 159: 323– 330.
126. Khan, I. J.,, G. H. Jeffries,, and M. H. Sleisenger. 1966. Malabsorption in intestinal scleroderma: correction by antibiotics. N. Engl. J. Med. 274: 1339– 1344.
127. Khan, S. R.,, F. Jalil,, S. Zaman,, B. S. Lindblad,, and J. Karlberg. 1993. Early child health in Lahore, Pakistan. X. Mortality. Acta Paediatr. Suppl. 390: 109– 117.
128. Khoury, K. A.,, M. H. Floch,, and T. Hersh. 1969. Small intestinal mucosal cell proliferation and bacterial flora in conventionalization of the germfree mouse. J. Exp. Med. 130: 659— 670.
129. Kilshaw, P. J.,, and A. J. Cant. 1984. The passage of maternal dietary proteins into human breast milk. Int. Arch. Allergy Appl. Immunol. 75: 8– 15.
130. Kim, J. H.,, and M. Ohsawa. 1995. Oral tolerance to ovalbumin in mice as a model for detecting modulators of the immunologic tolerance to a specific antigen. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 18: 854– 858.
131. King, C. E. 1979. Small intestine bacterial overgrowth. Gastroenterology 76: 1035– 1055.
132. Kirsch, M. 1990. Bacterial overgrowth. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 85: 231– 237.
133. Kmiot, W. A.,, M. R. Williams,, and M. R. B. Keighley. 1990. Pouchitis following colectomy and ileal reservoir construction for familial adenomatous polyposis. Br. J. Surg. 77: 1283.
134. Koch, F.,, U. Stanzl,, P. Jen Newein,, K. Janke,, C. Heufler,, E. Kampgen,, N. Romani,, and G. Schuler. 1996. High level IL-12 production by murine dendritic cells: upregulation via MHC class II and CD40 molecules and downregulation by IL-4 and IL-10. J. Exp. Med. 184: 741– 746.
135. Kool, J.,, H. de Visser,, M. Y. Gerritsboeye,, I. S. Klasen,, M. J. Melief,, C. G. van Heiden-Meeuwsen,, L. M. van Lieshout,, W. B. Ruseler-van Embden,, W. B. van den Berg,, G. M. Bahr,, and M. P. Hazenberg. 1994. Detection of intestinal flora-derived bacterial-antigen complexes in splenic macrophages of rats. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 11: 1435– 1441.
136. Kramer, U.,, J. Heinrich,, M. Wijst,, and H. E. Wichman. 1999. Age of entry to day nursery and allergy in later childhood. Lancet 353: 450– 454 .
137. Kripke, S. A.,, A. D. Fox,, J. M. Berman,, R. G. Settle,, and J. L. Rombeau. 1989. Stimulation of intestinal mucosal growth with intracolonic infusion of short-chain fatty acids. J. Parenter. Enteral Nutr. 13: 109– 116.
138. Kunin, C. M.,, F. Polyak,, and E. Postel. 1980. Periurethral bacterial flora in women. Prolonged intermittent colonization with Escherichia coli. JAMA 243: 134– 139.
139. Langholtz, E.,, P. Munkholm,, O. Haagen Nielsen,, S. Kreiner,, and V. Binder. 1991. Incidence and prevalenceof ulcerative colitis in Copenhagen County from 1962 to 1987. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 26: 1247– 1256.
140. Licht, T. R.,, K. A. Krogfelt,, P. S. Cohen,, L. K. Poulsen,, J. Urbance,, and S. Molin. 1996. Role of lipopolysaccharide in colonization of the mouse intestine by Salmonella typhimurium studied by in situ hybridization. Infect. Immun. 64: 3811– 3817.
141. Lichtenstein, A. H.,, and B. R. Goldin,. 1993. Lactic acid bacteria andintestinal drug and cholesterol metabolism, p. 227– 236. In S. Salminen, and A. von Wright (ed.), Lactic Acid Bacteria. Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, N.Y.
142. Lichtman, S. N.,, R. B. Sartor,, J. Keku,, and J. H. Schwab. 1990. Hepatic inflammation in rats with experimental small intestinal bacterial overgrowth. Gastroenterology 98: 414– 423.
143. Lipson, A. 1976. Infectious dose of Salmonella. Lancet i: 969.
144. Lundqvist, C.,, S. Melgar,, M. M. Yeung,, S. Hammarstrom,, and M.-L. Hammarstrdm. 1996. Intraepitheliallymphocytes in human gut have lytic potential and a cytokine profile that suggest T helper 1 andcytotoxic functions.. J. Immunol. 157: 1926– 1934.
145. Luukonen, P.,, V. Valtonen,, A. Sivonen,, P. Sipponen,, and H. Jarvinen. 1988. Fecal bacteriology and reservoir ileitis in patients operated for ulcerative colitis. Dis. Colon Rectum 31: 864– 867.
146. Lyerly, D. M.,, D. E. Lockwood,, S. H. Richardson,, and T. D. Wilkins. 1982. Biological activities of toxins A and B of Clostridium difficile. Infect. Immun. 35A: 1147– 1150.
147. Lyerly, D. M.,, D. E. Lockwood,, S. H. Richardson,, and T. D. Wilkins. 1988. Clostridium difficile: its disease and toxins. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 1: 1– 18.
148. Mackowiak, P. A. 1982. The normal microbial flora. N. Engl. J. Med. 307: 83– 93.
149. Mahmud, A.,, F. Jalil,, J. Karlberg,, and B. S. Lindblad. 1993. Early child health in Lahore, Pakistan. VII. Diarrhoea. Acta Paediatr. Suppl. 390: 79– 85.
150. Mallett, A. K.,, and I. R. Rowland. 1990. Bacterial enzymes: their role in the formation of mutagens and carcinogens in the intestine. Dig. Dis. 8: 71– 79.
151. Marshall, J.C.,, N. V. Christou,, and J. L. Meakins. 1993. The gastro-intestinal tract. The “undrained abscess” of multiple organ failure. Arch. Surg. 218: 111– 119.
152. Martin, S. A.,, J. L. Karnovsky,, J. M. Krueger,, J. R. Pappenheimer,, and K. Biemann. 1984. Peptidoglycans as promoters of slow wave sleep. 1. Structure of the sleep-promoting factor isolated from human urine. J. Biol. Chem. 259: 7514– 7522.
153. Mata, L. J.,, and J. J. Urrutia. 1971. Intestinal colonization of breast-fed children in a rural area of l ow socioeconomic level. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 176: 93– 109.
154. Matricardi, P. M.,, F. Rosmini,, L. Ferrigno,, R. Nisini,, M. Rapicetta,, P. Chionne,, T. StrofFolini,, P. Pasquini,, and R. D'Amelio. 1997. Cross sectional retrospective study of prevalence of atopy among Italian military students with antibodies against hepatitis A virus. BMJ 314: 999– 1003.
155. Matsumoto, S.,, M. Nanno,, N. Watanabe,, M. Miyashita,, H. Amasaki,, K. Suzuki,, and Y. Umesaki. 1999. Physiological roles of y & T cell receptor intraepithelial lymphocytes in cytoproliferation and differentiation of mouse intestinal epithelial cells. Immunology 97: 18– 25.
156. Mattias, J. R.,, and M. H. Clench. 1985. R e view: pathophysiology of diarrhea caused by bacterial overgrowth of the small intestine. Am. J. Med. Sci. 289: 243– 248.
157. Maxson, R. T.,, R. J. Jackson,, and S. D. Smith. 1995. The protective role of enteral IgA supplementation in neonatal gut origin sepsis. J. Pediatr. Surg. 30: 231– 233.
158. McCracken, V. J.,, and P. D. Cranwell. 1992. Anaerobic microflora associated with the pars oesophaga of the pig. Res. Vet. Sci. 53: 110– 115.
159. Mellander, L.,, B. Carlsson,, F. Jalil,, T. Soderstrdm,, and L. A. Hanson. 1985. Secretory IgA antibody response against Escherichia coli antigens in infants in relation to exposure. J. Pediatr. 107: 430– 433.
160. Meltzer, M. S. 1976. Tumoricidal responses in vitro of peritoneal macrophages from conventionally housed and germ-tree nude mice. Cell. Immunol. 22: 176– 181.
161. Menge, H.,, R. Kohn,, K. H. Dietermann,, H. Lorenz-Meyer E.,, O. Riecken,, and J. W. Robinson. 1979. Structural and functional alterations in the mucosa of self-tilling intestinal blind loops in rats. Clin. Sci. 56:121—131.
162. Meslin, J. C.,, E. Sacquet,, and J. L. Guenet. 1973. Action de la flore bacterienne sur la morphologic et la surface de la muqueuse de l'intestine grèle du rat. Ann. Biol. Anim. Biochim. Biophys. 13: 203– 214.
163. Mestecky, J.,, I. Moro,, and B. J. Underdown,. 1999. MucosalimmunoglobuHns, p. 133– 152. In P. L. Ogra,, J. Mestecky,, M. E. Lamm,, W. Strober,, J. Bienenstock,, and J. R. McGhee (ed.), Mucosal Immunology. Academic Press, San Diego, Calif.
164. Midtvedt, A.-C. 1994. The Establishment and Development of Some Metabolic Activities Associated with the Intestinal Microflora in Healthy Children. Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
165. Midtvedt, T., 1999. Microbial functionalactivities, p. 79– 96. In L. A. Hanson, and R. H. Yolken (ed.), Probiotics, Other Nutritional Factors, and Intestinal Microflora. Vevey/Lipincott-Raven Publishers, Philadelphia, Pa.
166. Midtvedt, T.,, and B. E. Gustafsson. 1981. Digestion of dead bacteria by germ-free rats. Curr. Microbiol. 6: 13– 15.
167. Mishima, S.,, D. X u,, Q. Lu,, and E. A. Deitch. 1998. The relationship among nitric oxide production, bacterial translocation, and intestinal injury after endotoxin challenge in vivo. J. Trauma 44: 175– 182.
168. Mitsuyama, M.,, R. Ohara,, K. Amako,, K. Nomoto,, and T. Yokokura. 1986. Ontogeny of macrophage function to release superoxide anion in conventional and germfree mice. Infect. Immun. 52: 236– 239.
169. Moore, W. E.,, and L. H. Moore. 1995. Intestinal floras of populations that have a high risk of colon cancer. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61: 3202– 3207.
170. Moore, W. E.C.,, E. P. Cato,, I. J. Good,, and L. V. Holdema n,. 1981. The effect of diet onthe human fecal flora, p. 11– 24. In W. R. Bruce,, P. Correa,, M. Lipkin,, S. R. Tannenbaum,, and T. D. Wilkins (ed.), Gastrointestinal Cancer: Endogenous Factors. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.
171. Moore, W. E.C.,, E. P. Cato,, and L. V. Holdeman. 1978. Some current conceptsin intestinal bacteriology. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 31: S33– S42.
172. Moore, W. E. C.,, and L. V. Holdeman. 1974. Human fecal flora: the normal flora of 20 Japanese-Hawaiians. Appl. Microbiol. 27: 961– 979 .
173. Moreau, M. C.,, and G. Corthier. 1988. Effect of gastrointestinal microflora on induction and maintenance of oral tolerance to ovalbumin in C3H/HeJ mice. Infect. Immun. 56: 2766– 2768.
174. Moreau, M. C.,, R. Ducluzeau,, D. Guy- Grand,, and M. C. Muller. 1978. Increase in the population of duodenal immunoglobulin A plasmocytes in axenic mice associated with different living or dead bacterial strains of intestinal origin. Infect. Immun. 21: 532– 539.
175. Morland, B.,, and T. Midtvedt. 1984. Phagocytosis, peritoneal influx and enzyme activities in peritoneal macrophages from germ-free, conventional, and ex-germ-free mice. Infect. Immun. 44: 750– 752.
176. Mowat, A.M.,, and H. L. Weiner,. 1999. Oral tolerance:physiological basis and clinical applications, p. 587– 618. In P. L. Ogra,, J. Mestecky,, M. E. Lamm,, W. Strober,, J. Bienenstock,, and J. R. McGhee (ed.), Mucosal Immunology. Academic Press, San Diego, Calif.
177. Munkholm, P.,, E. Langholtz,, O. Haagen Nielsen,, S. Kreiner,, and V. Binder. 1992. Incidence and prevalence of Crohn'sdisease in the County of Copenhagen, 1962—87: a sixfold increase in incidence. Scand.J. Gastroenterol. 27: 609– 614.
178. Murono, K.,, K. Fujita,, M. Yoshikawa,, M. Saijo,, F. Inyaku,, H. Kakehashi,, and T. Tsuk amoto. 1993. Acquisition of nonmaternal Enterobacteriaceae by infants delivered in hospitals. J. Pediatr. 122: 120– 125.
179. Nagengast, F. M.,, M. J. Grubben,, and I. P. van Munster. 1995. Role of bile acids in colorectal carcinogenesis. Eur. J. Cancer 31A: 1067– 1070.
180. Nelson, D. P.,, and L. J. Mata. 1970. Bacterial flora associated with the human gastrointestinal mucosa. Gastroenterology 58: 56– 61.
181. Neumann, V. C.,, R. Shinebaum,, E. M. Cook e,, and V. Wright. 1987. Effects of sulphasalazine on faecal flora in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a comparison with penicillamine. Br. J. Rheumatol. 26: 334– 337.
182. Neut, C.,, E. Bezirtzoglou,, C. Romond,, H. Beerens,, M. Delcroix,, and A. M. Noel. 1987. Bacterial colonization of the large intestine in newborns delivered by caesarean section. Zentbl. Bakteriol. Microbiol. Hyg. A 266: 330– 337.
183. Neutra, M. R.,, A. Frey,, and J. P. Kraehenbuhl. 1996. M-cells: gateways for mucosal infection and immunization. Cell 86: 345– 348.
184. Nicaise, P.,, A. Gleizes,, F. Forestier,, A. M. Quero,, and C. Labarre. 1993. Influence of intestinal bacterial flora on cytokine (IL1, IL6 and TNFα) production by mouse peritoneal macrophages. Eur. Cytokine Netw. 4: 133– 139.
185. Nicaise, P.,, A. Gleizes,, F. Forestier,, C. Sandre,, A. M. Quero,, and C. Labarre. 1995. The influence of E. coli implantation in axenic mice on cytokine production by peritoneal and bone marrow-derived macrophages. Cytokine 7: 713– 719.
186. Oresland, T.,, S. Fasth,, S. Nordgren,, and L. Hulten. 1989. The clinical and functional outcome after restorative protocolectomy. A prospective study in 100 patients. Int. J. Colored. Dis. 4: 50– 56.
187. Owens, W. E.,, and R. D. Berg. 1980. Bacterial translocation from the gastrointestinal tract of athymic (nu/nu) mice. Infect. Immun. 27: 461– 467 .
188. Owens, W. E.,, and R. D. Berg. 1982. Bacterial translocation from the gastrointestinal tracts of thymectomized mice. Curr. Microbiol. 7: 169– 174.
189. Pabst, H. F.,, D. W. Spady,, L. M. Pilarski,, M. M. Carson,, J. A. Beeler,, and M. P. Krezolek. 1997. Differential modulation of the immune response by breast- or formula-feeding of infants. Acta Pediatr. 86: 1291– 1297.
190. Pavli, P.,, C. E. Woodhams,, W. F. Doe,, and D. A. Hume. 1990. Isolation and characterization of antigen-presenting dendritic cells from the mouse intestinal lamina propria. Immunology 70: 40– 47.
191. Peltonen, R.,, M. Nenone n,, T. Helve,, O. Hanninen,, P. Toivanen,, and E. Eerola. 1997. Fecal microbial flora and disease activity in rheumatoid arthritis during a vegan diet. Br. J. Rheumatol. 36: 64– 68.
192. Peri, B. A.,, C. M. Theodore,, G. A. Losonsky,, J. M. Fishaut,, R. M. Rothberg,, and P. L. Ogra. 1982. Antibody content of rabbit milk and serum following inhalation or ingestion of respiratory syncytial virus and bovine serum albumin. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 48: 91– 101.
193. Plos, K.,, H. Connell,, U. Jodal,, B. I. Marklund,, S. Mårild,, B. Wettergren,, and C. Svanborg. 1995. Intestinal carriage of P-fimbriated Escherichia coli and the susceptibility to urinary tract infection in young children. J. Infect. Dis. 171: 625– 631.
194. Podroprigera, G. I.,, J. Hoffman,, J. Janecek,, and J. Naprstka. 1980. Cyclic AMP in macrophages, intestinal mucosa and blood plasma of germfree and ordinary animals. Bull. Exp. Biol. Med. 89: 878– 880.
195. Poulsen, L. K.,, T. R. Licht,, C. Rang,, K. A. Krogfeldt,, and S. Molin. 1995. Physiological state of Escherichia coli BJ4 growing in the large intestines of streptomycin-treated mice. J. Bacteriol. 177: 5840– 5845.
196. Regnault, A.,, J. P. Levraud,, A. Lim,, A. Six,, C. Moreau,, A. Cumano,, and P. Kourilsky. 1996. The expansion and selection of T cell receptor αβ intestinal intraepithelial T cell clones. Eur. J. Immunol. 26: 914– 921.
197. Reynolds, H. Y. 1988. Immunoglobulin G and its function in the human respiratory tract. Mayo Clin. Proc. 63: 161– 174.
198. Riegler, G.,, T. Carratu,, M. Tartaglione,, F. Morace,, R. Manzione,, and A. Arimoli. 1998. Prevalence and relative risk of malignancy in relatives of inflammatory bowel disease patients and control subjects. J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 27: 211– 214.
199. Riepe, S. P. J. Goldstein, and D. H. Alpers. 1980. Effect of secreted Bacteroides proteases on human intestinal brush border hydrolases. J. Clin. Investig. 66: 314– 322.
200. Roe, T. F.,, T. D. Coates,, D. W. Thomas,, J. H. Miller,, and V. Gilsanz. 1992. Treatment of chronic inflammatory bowel disease in glycogen storage disease type lb with colony-stimulating factors. N. Engl. J. Med. 326: 1666– 1669.
201. Roediger, W. E. 1980. Role of anaerobic bacteria in the metabolic welfare of the colonic mucosa in man. Gut 21: 793– 798.
202. Rotimi, V. O.,, S. A. Olowe,, and I. Ahmed. 1985. The development of bacterial flora of premature neonates. J. Hyg. Camb. 94: 309— 318.
203. Ruddell, W. S.,, and M. S. Losowsky. 1980. Severe diarrhoea due to small intestinal colonisation during cimetidine treatment. Br. Med. J. 281: 273.
204. Russell, M. W.,, D. A. Sibley,, E. B. Nikolova,, M. Tomana,, and J. Mestecky. 1997. IgA antibody as a non-inflammatory regulator of immunity. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 25: 466– 470.
205. Salyers, A. A.,, J. R. Vercellotti,, S. E. H. West,, and T. D. Wilkins. 1977. Fermentation of mucin and plant polysaccharides by strains of Bacteroides from the human colon. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 33: 319– 322.
206. Sarff, L. D.,, G. H. McCracken, Jr.,, M. S. Schiffer,, M. P. Glode,, J. B. Robbins,, I. Orskov,, and F. Orskov. 1975. Epidemiology of Escherichia coli K1 in healthy and diseased newborns. Lancet i: 1099– 1104.
207. Scheffel, J. W.,, and Y. B. Kim. 1979. Role of environment in the development of “natural” hemagglutinins in Minnesota miniature swine. Inject Immun. 26: 202– 210.
208. Scheppach, W. 1994. Effects of short chainfatty acids on gut morphology and function. Gut 35( Suppl. 1): S35– S38.
209. Schieferdecker, H. L.,, R. Ullrich,, H. Hirseland,, and M. Zeitz. 1992. T cell differentiation antigens on lymphocytes in the human intestinal lamina propria. J. Immunol. 149: 2816– 2822.
210. Sears, H. J.,, and I. Brownlee. 1951. Further observations on the persistence of individual strains of Escherichia coli in the intestinal tract of man. J. Bacteriol. 63: 47– 57.
211. Sepp, E.,, K. Julge,, M. Vasar,, P. Naaber,, B. Björksten,, and M. Mikkelsaar. 1997. Intestinal microflora of Estonian and Swedish infants. Acta Pediatr. 86: 956– 961.
212. Seppälä, I.,, M. Kaartinen,, S. Ibrahim,, and O. Makela. 1990. Mouse Ig coded by V H families SI07 or J606 bind to protein A. J. Immunol. 145: 2989– 2993.
213. Severijnen, A. J.,, R. vanKleef,, M. P. Hazenberg,, and J. P. van der Merwe. 1989. Cell wall fragments from major residents of the human intestinal flora induce chronic arthritis in rats. J. Rheumatol. 16: 1061– 1068.
214. Shinebaum, R.,, V. C. Neumann,, E. M. Cooke,, and V. Wright. 1987. Comparison of fecal florae in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and controls. Br. J. Rheumatol. 26: 329– 333.
215. Shroff, K. E.,, K. Meslin,, and J. J. Cebra. 1995. Commensal enteric bacteria engender a self-Hmiting humoral mucosal immune response while permanendy colonizing the gut. Inject. Immun. 63: 3904– 3913.
216. Silverman, G. J. 1992. Human antibody responses to bacterial antigens: studies of a model conventional antigen and a proposed model B cell superantigen. Int. Rev. Immunol. 9: 57– 78.
217. Simon, G.L.,, and S. L. Gorbach. 1986. The human intestinalmicroflora. Dig. Dis. Sci. 31( Suppl.9): 147S– 162S.
218. Sobel, J. D. 1991. Bacterial etiologic agents in the pathogenesis of urinary tract infection. Med. Clin. N. Am. 75: 253– 273.
219. Solomon, M. J.,, and M. Schnitzler. 1998. Cancer and inflammatory bowel disease: bias, epidemiology, surveillance, and treatment. World J. Surg. 22: 352– 358.
220. Springer, G. F.,, and R. E. Horton. 1969. Blood group isoantibody stimulation in man by feeding blood group-reactive bacteria. J. Clin. Investig. 48: 1280– 1291.
221. Stamey, T. A.,, M. Timothy,, M. Millar,, and G. Mihara. 1971. Recurrent urinary infections in adult women. The role of introital enterobacteria. Calif. Med. 115: 1.
222. Stark, P. L.,, and A. Lee. 1982. The microbial ecology of the large bowel of breast-fed and formula- fed infants during the first year of life. J. Med. Microbiol. 15: 189– 203.
223. Steinman, R. M. 1991. The dendritic cell system and its role in immunogenicity. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 9: 271– 296.
224. Strachan, D. P. 1989. Hay fever, hygiene and household size. Br. Med. J. 289: 1259– 1260.
225. Sudo, N.,, S. Sawamura,, K. Tanaka,, Y. Aiba,, C. Kubo,, and Y. Koga. 1997. The requirement of intestinal bacterial flora for the development of an IgE production system fully susceptible to oral tolerance induction. J. Immunol. 159: 1739– 1745.
226. Svanborg Eden, C.,, L. Hagberg,, R. Hull,, S. Hull,, K.-E. Magnusson,, and L. Ohman. 1987. Bacterial virulence versus host resistance in the urinary tracts of mice. Inject. Immun. 55: 1224– 1232.
227. Svanborg Eden, C.,, R. Kulhavy,, S. Marild,, S. J. Prince,, and J. Mestecky. 1985. Urinary immunoglobulins in healthy individuals and children with acute pyelonephritis. Scand. J. Immunol. 21: 305– 313.
228. Svanborg Eden, C.,, and A.-M. Svennerholm. 1978. Secretory immunoglobulin A and G antibodies prevent adhesion of Escherichia coli to human urinary tract epithelial cells. Inject. Immun. 22: 790– 797.
229. Tannock, G. V. 1995. Normal Microflora. An Introduction to Microbes Inhabiting the Human Body. Chapman and Hall, London, United Kingdom.
230. Tannock, G.W., 1999. Microecology of lactobacilli andbifidobacteria inhabiting the digestive tract: essential knowledge for successful probioticresearch, p. 17– 31. In L. Å. Hanson, and R. H. Yolken (ed.), Probiotics, Other Nutritional Factors, and Intestinal Microflora. Vevey/Lipincott-Raven Publishers, Philadelphia, Pa.
231. Tannock, G. W.,, R. Fuller,, S. L. Smith,, and M. A. Hall. 1990. Plasmid profiling of members of the family Enterobacteriaceae, lactobacilli, and bifidobacteria from mother to infant. J. Clin. Microbiol. 28: 1225– 1228.
232. Tissier, H. 1900. Recherches sur la Flore Intestinale des Nourrissons (État Normal et Pathologique). Paris, France.
233. Toskes, P. P.,, R. A. Giannella,, H. R. Jervis,, W. R. Rout,, and A. Takeuchi. 1975. Small intestinal mucosal injury in the experimental blind loop syndrome. Light- and electron-microscopic and histochemical studies. Gastroenterology 68: 193– 203.
234. Tullus, K. 1987. Fecal colonizationwith P-fimbriated Escherichia coli in newborn children and relation to developmentof extraintestinal E. coli infections. Acta Paediatr.Scand. 334 ( Suppl.): 1– 35.
235. Tullus, K.,, and L. G. Burman. 1989. Ecological impact of ampicillin and cefuroxime in neonatal units. Lancet i: 1405– 1407.
236. Tullus, K.,, I. Kuhn,, I. Ørskov,, F. Ørskov,, and R. Möllby. 1992. The importance of P and type 1 fimbriae for the persistence of Escherichia coli in the human gut. Epidemiol. Inject 108: 415– 421 .
237. Tzianabos, A. O.,, A. B. Onderdonk,, B. Rosner,, R. L. Cisneros,, and D. L. Rasper. 1993. Structural features of polysaccharides that induce intra-abdominal abscesses. Science 262: 416– 419.
238. van der Waaij, D. 1989. The ecology of the human intestine and its consequences for overgrowth by pathogens such as Clostridium difficile. Annu. Rev. Microbiol 43: 69– 87.
239. van der Waaij, D., 1999. Microbial ecology of the intestinal microflora: influence of interactions with the host organism, p. 1— 16. In L. Å. Hanson, and R. H. Yolken (ed.), Probiotics, Other Nutritional Factors, and Intestinal Microflora. Vevey/Lipincott-Raven Publishers, Philadelphia, Pa.
240. von Mutius, E.,, F. D. Martinez,, C. Fritzsch,, T. Nicolai,, G. Roell,, and H. H. Thiemann. 1994. Prevalence of asthma and atopy in two areas of West and East Germany. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 149: 358– 364.
241. Vosti, K. L.,, L. M. Goldberg,, A. S. Monto,, and L. A. Rantz. 1964. Host-parasite interaction in patients with infections due to Escherichia coli. I. The serogrouping of E. coli from intestinal and extraintestinal sources. J. Clin. Investig. 43: 2377– 2385.
242. Wadolkowski, E. A.,, D. C. Laux,, and P. S. Cohen. 1988. Colonization of the streptomycin- treated mouse large intestine by a human fecal Escherichia coli strain: role of growth in mucus. Inject. Immun. 56: 1030– 1035.
243. Wells, C. L.,, M. A. Maddaus,, C. M. Reynolds,, R. P. Jechorek,, and R. L. Simmons. 1987. Role of anaerobic flora in the translocation of aerobic and facultatively anaerobic intestinal bacteria. Inject. Immun. 55: 2689– 2694.
244. West, P. A.,, J. H. Hewitt,, and O. M. Murphy. 1979. The influence of methods of collection and storage on the bacteriology of human milk. J. Appl Bacteriol. 46: 269– 277.
245. Wiener, A. S. 1951. Origin of naturally occurring hemagglutinins and hemolysins: a review. J. Immunol 66: 287– 295.
246. Wilkins, T.D.,, and R. L. vanTassell,. 1983. Production of intestinalmutagens, p. 265– 288. In D. J. Hentges (ed.), Human Intestinal Microflora in Health and Disease. Academic Press, New York, N.Y.
247. Williams, H.C.,, D. P. Strachan,, and R. J. Hay. 1994. Childhood eczema: disease of the advantaged? BMJ 308: 1132– 1135.
248. Williams, R. C,, and R. J. Gibbons. 1972. Inhibition of bacterial adherence by secretory immunoglobulin A: a mechanism of antigen disposal. Science 177: 697– 699.
249. Wilson, H. D.,, and H. F. Eichenwald. 1974. Sepsis neonatorum. Pediatr. Clin. N. Am. 21: 571– 582.
250. Wilson, K.H., 1997. Biota in the human gastrointestinaltract, p. 39– 58. In R. I. Mackie,, B. A. White,, and R. E. Isaacson (ed.), Gastrointestinal Microbiology. Chapman & Hall, Ltd., London, United Kingdom.
251. Winberg, J.,, and G. Wessner. 1971. Does breast milk protect against septicemia in the newborn? Lancet i: 1091– 1094.
252. Wittman, D. H. 1985. Die Bedeutung der Infektionserreger für die Therapie der eitrigen Peritonitis. Chirurg 56: 363– 370.
253. Wold, A. E. 1998. The hygiene hypothesis revised: is the rising frequency of allergy due to changes in the intestinal flora? Allergy 53: 20– 25.
254. Wold, A. E.,, D. A. Caugant,, G. Lidin-Janson,, P. de Man,, and C. Svanborg. 1992. Resident colonic Escherichia coli strains frequently display uropathogenic characteristics. J. Inject. Dis. 165: 46– 52.
255. Wold, A.E.,, U. I. H. Dahlgren,, L. A., Hanson,, I. Mattsby-Baltzer,, and T. Midtvedt. 1989. Difference between bacterial and food antigens in mucosal immunogenicity. Infect. Immun. 57: 2666– 2613.
256. Wold, A. E.,, J. Mestecky,, M. Tomana,, A. Kobata,, H. Ohbayashi,, T. Endo,, and C. Svanborg Eden. 1990. Secretory immunoglobulin A carries oligosaccharide receptors for Escherichia coli type 1 fimbrial lectin. Inject. Immun. 58: 3073– 3077.
257. Wold, A. E.,, M. Thorssen,, S. Hull,, and C. Svanborg Eden. 1988. Attachment of Escherichia coli via mannose or Galα1-4Galβ-containing receptors to human colonic epithelial cells. Inject. Immun. 56: 2531– 2537.
258. Yudate, T.,, H. Yamada,, and T. Tezuka. 1996. Role of staphylococcal enterotoxins in pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis: growth and expression of T cell receptor V beta of peripheral blood mononuclear cells stimulated by enterotoxins A and B. J. Dermatol. Sci. 13: 63– 70.
259. Zafriri, D.,, Y. Oron,, B. Eisenstein,, and I. Ofek. 1987. Growth advantage and enhanced toxicity of Escherichia coli adherent to tissue culture cells due to restricted diffusion of products secreted by the cells. J. Clin. Investig. 79: 1210– 1216.
260. Ziegler, H. K.,, C. A. Orlin,, and C. W. ClufT. 1987. Differential requirements for the processing and presentation of soluble and particulate bacterial antigens by macrophages. Eur. J. Immunol. 17: 1287– 1296.

Back to top
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Please check the format of the address you have entered.
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error