1887

Chapter 15 : Shiga Toxin/Verocytotoxin-Producing Infections: Practical Clinical Perspectives

Authors: T. Keefe Davis1, Nicole C. A. J. van De Kar2, Phillip I. Tarr3
VIEW AFFILIATIONS HIDE AFFILIATIONS
Affiliations: 1: Division of Nephrology, Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110; 2: Division of Nephrology, Department of Pediatrics, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; 3: Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Department of Pediatrics, and Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110
Content Type: Monograph
Publication Year: 2015

Category: Clinical Microbiology

MyBook is a cheap paperback edition of the original book and will be sold at uniform, low price.

Preview this chapter:
Preview Magnify
Zoom in
Zoomout

Shiga Toxin/Verocytotoxin-Producing Infections: Practical Clinical Perspectives, Page 1 of 2

| /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555818791/9781555818784_Chap15-1.gif /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555818791/9781555818784_Chap15-2.gif

Abstract:

Shiga toxin (Stx)-producing (STEC) cause illness with a spectrum of severity ranging from mild (even asymptomatic) carriage to life-threatening disease ( ). STEC infections are relatively uncommon; in the United States, extrapolation of data from FoodNet ( ) to a nationwide population that exceeds 300,000,000 indicates there are fewer than 4,000 diagnosed cases of O157:H7 infection per annum. O157:H7 remains the near-exclusive cause of hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS) throughout most of the world, and the single serotype on which most data have been generated. Therefore, we emphasize this particular pathogen in this article. The European Food Safety Authority and the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control report similar epidemiology: 4,000 confirmed infections caused by Stx-producing strains (mostly belonging to the O157 serogroup) in 27 European Union member states. The number of reported infections attributed to strains that produce Shiga toxins has increased since 2008 ( ).

Citation: Davis T, van De Kar N, Tarr P. 2015. Shiga Toxin/Verocytotoxin-Producing Infections: Practical Clinical Perspectives, p 321-339. In Sperandio V, Hovde C (ed), Enterohemorrhagic and Other Shiga Toxin-Producing . ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/microbiolspec.EHEC-0025-2014
Highlighted Text: Show | Hide
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

/content/book/10.1128/9781555818791.chap15
1. Denno DM,, Shaikh N,, Stapp JR,, Qin X,, Hutter CM,, Hoffman V,, Mooney JC,, Wood KM,, Stevens HJ,, Jones R,, Tarr PI,, Klein EJ . 2012. Diarrhea etiology in a pediatric emergency department: a case control study. Clin Infect Dis 55 : 897– 904.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
2. Watanabe H,, Terajima J,, Izumiya H,, Wada A,, Tamura K . 1999. Molecular analysis of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli isolates in Japan and its application to epidemiological investigation. Pediatr Int 41 : 202– 208.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
3. Stephan R,, Untermann F . 1999. Virulence factors and phenotypical traits of verotoxin-producing Escherichia coli strains isolated from asymptomatic human carriers. J Clin Microbiol 37 : 1570– 1572.[PubMed]
4. Gould LH,, Mody RK,, Ong KL,, Clogher P,, Cronquist AB,, Garman KN,, Lathrop S,, Medus C,, Spina NL,, Webb TH,, White PL,, Wymore K,, Gierke RE,, Mahon BE,, Griffin PM , Emerging Infections Program Foodnet Working Group . 2013. Increased recognition of non-O157 Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli infections in the United States during 2000–2010: epidemiologic features and comparison with E. coli O157 infections. Foodborne Pathog Dis 10 : 453– 460.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
5. European Food Safety Authority . 2012. The European Union Summary Report on Trends and Sources of Zoonoses, Zoonotic Agents and Food-borne Outbreaks in 2010. EFSA Journal 10 : 161– 188.
6. Konowalchuk J,, Speirs JI,, Stavric S . 1977. Vero response to a cytotoxin of Escherichia coli . Infect Immun 18 : 775– 779.[PubMed]
7. Karmali MA,, Steele BT,, Petric M,, Lim C . 1983. Sporadic cases of haemolytic-uraemic syndrome associated with faecal cytotoxin and cytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli in stools. Lancet 1 : 619– 620.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
8. Miceli S,, Jure MA,, de Saab OA,, de Castillo MC,, Rojas S,, de Holgado AP,, de Nader OM . 1999. A clinical and bacteriological study of children suffering from haemolytic uraemic syndrome in Tucuman, Argentina. Jpn J Infect Dis 52 : 33– 37.[PubMed]
9. Brandt JR,, Fouser LS,, Watkins SL,, Zelikovic I,, Tarr PI,, Nazar-Stewart V,, Avner ED . 1994. Escherichia coli O 157:H7-associated hemolytic-uremic syndrome after ingestion of contaminated hamburgers. J Pediatr 125 : 519– 526.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
10. Riley LW,, Remis RS,, Helgerson SD,, McGee HB,, Wells JG,, Davis BR,, Hebert RJ,, Olcott ES,, Johnson LM,, Hargrett NT,, Blake PA,, Cohen ML . 1983. Hemorrhagic colitis associated with a rare Escherichia coli serotype. N Engl J Med 308 : 681– 685.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
11. Meites S,, Buffone GJ . 1989. Pediatric Clinical Chemistry: Reference (Normal) Values. AACC Press, Washington, DC.
12. Banatvala N,, Griffin PM,, Greene KD,, Barrett TJ,, Bibb WF,, Green JH,, Wells JG , Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome Study Collaborators . 2001. The United States National Prospective Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome Study: microbiologic, serologic, clinical, and epidemiologic findings. J Infect Dis 183 : 1063– 1070.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
13. Tsai HM,, Chandler WL,, Sarode R,, Hoffman R,, Jelacic S,, Habeeb RL,, Watkins SL,, Wong CS,, Williams GD,, Tarr PI . 2001. von Willebrand factor and von Willebrand factor-cleaving metalloprotease activity in Escherichia coli O157:H7-associated hemolytic uremic syndrome. Pediatr Res 49 : 653– 659.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
14. Jelacic S,, Wobbe CL,, Boster DR,, Ciol MA,, Watkins SL,, Tarr PI,, Stapleton AE . 2002. ABO and P1 blood group antigen expression and stx genotype and outcome of childhood Escherichia coli O157:H7 infections. J Infect Dis 185 : 214– 219.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
15. Cornick NA,, Jelacic S,, Ciol MA,, Tarr PI . 2002. Escherichia coli O157:H7 infections: discordance between filterable fecal shiga toxin and disease outcome. J Infect Dis 186 : 57– 63.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
16. Klein EJ,, Stapp JR,, Clausen CR,, Boster DR,, Wells JG,, Qin X,, Swerdlow DL,, Tarr PI . 2002. Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli in children with diarrhea: a prospective point-of-care study. J Pediatr 141 : 172– 177.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
17. Smith JM,, Jones F,, Ciol MA,, Jelacic S,, Boster DR,, Watkins SL,, Williams GD,, Tarr PI,, Henderson WR Jr . 2002. Platelet-activating factor and Escherichia coli O157:H7 infections. Pediatr Nephrol 17 : 1047– 1052.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
18. Thayu M,, Chandler WL,, Jelacic S,, Gordon CA,, Rosenthal GL,, Tarr PI . 2003. Cardiac ischemia during hemolytic uremic syndrome. Pediatr Nephrol 18 : 286– 289.[PubMed]
19. Jelacic JK,, Damrow T,, Chen GS,, Jelacic S,, Bielaszewska M,, Ciol M,, Carvalho HM,, Melton-Celsa AR,, O’Brien AD,, Tarr PI . 2003. Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli in Montana: bacterial genotypes and clinical profiles. J Infect Dis 188 : 719– 729.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
20. Ake JA,, Jelacic S,, Ciol MA,, Watkins SL,, Murray KF,, Christie DL,, Klein EJ,, Tarr PI . 2005. Relative nephroprotection during Escherichia coli O157:H7 infections: association with intravenous volume expansion. Pediatrics 115 : e673– e680.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
21. Hickey CA,, Beattie TJ,, Cowieson J,, Miyashita Y,, Strife CF,, Frem JC,, Peterson JM,, Butani L,, Jones DP,, Havens PL,, Patel HP,, Wong CS,, Andreoli SP,, Rothbaum RJ,, Beck AM,, Tarr PI . 2011. Early volume expansion during diarrhea and relative nephroprotection during subsequent hemolytic uremic syndrome. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 165 : 884– 889.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
22. Zimmerhackl LB,, Rosales A,, Hofer J,, Riedl M,, Jungraithmayr T,, Mellmann A,, Bielaszewska M,, Karch H . 2010. Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O26:H11-associated Hemolytic uremic syndrome: bacteriology and clinical presentation. Semin Thromb Hemost 36 : 586– 593.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
23. Gerber A,, Karch H,, Allerberger F,, Verweyen HM,, Zimmerhackl LB . 2002. Clinical course and the role of shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli infection in the hemolytic-uremic syndrome in pediatric patients, 1997–2000, in Germany and Austria: a prospective study. J Infect Dis 186 : 493– 500.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
24. Bielaszewska M,, Middendorf B,, Kock R,, Friedrich AW,, Fruth A,, Karch H,, Schmidt MA,, Mellmann A . 2008. Shiga toxin-negative attaching and effacing Escherichia coli: distinct clinical associations with bacterial phylogeny and virulence traits and inferred in-host pathogen evolution. Clin Infect Dis 47 : 208– 217.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
25. Bielaszewska M,, Kock R,, Friedrich AW,, von Eiff C,, Zimmerhackl LB,, Karch H,, Mellmann A . 2007. Shiga toxin-mediated hemolytic uremic syndrome: time to change the diagnostic paradigm? PLoS One 2 : e1024. [PubMed] [CrossRef]
26. Friedrich AW,, Zhang W,, Bielaszewska M,, Mellmann A,, Kock R,, Fruth A,, Tschape H,, Karch H . 2007. Prevalence, virulence profiles, and clinical significance of Shiga toxin-negative variants of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157 infection in humans. Clin Infect Dis 45 : 39– 45.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
27. Bielaszewska M,, Friedrich AW,, Aldick T,, Schurk-Bulgrin R,, Karch H . 2006. Shiga toxin activatable by intestinal mucus in Escherichia coli isolated from humans: predictor for a severe clinical outcome. Clin Infect Dis 43 : 1160– 1167.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
28. Sonntag AK,, Prager R,, Bielaszewska M,, Zhang W,, Fruth A,, Tschape H,, Karch H . 2004. Phenotypic and genotypic analyses of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O145 strains from patients in Germany. J Clin Microbiol 42 : 954– 962.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
29. Ikeda K,, Ida O,, Kimoto K,, Takatorige T,, Nakanishi N,, Tatara K . 1999. Effect of early fosfomycin treatment on prevention of hemolytic uremic syndrome accompanying Escherichia coli O157:H7 infection. Clin Nephrol 52 : 357– 362.[PubMed]
30. Loos S,, Ahlenstiel T,, Kranz B,, Staude H,, Pape L,, Hartel C,, Vester U,, Buchtala L,, Benz K,, Hoppe B,, Beringer O,, Krause M,, Muller D,, Pohl M,, Lemke J,, Hillebrand G,, Kreuzer M,, Konig J,, Wigger M,, Konrad M,, Haffner D,, Oh J,, Kemper MJ . 2012. An outbreak of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O104:H4 hemolytic uremic syndrome in Germany: presentation and short-term outcome in children. Clin Infect Dis 55 : 753– 759.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
31. Wong CS,, Mooney JC,, Brandt JR,, Staples AO,, Jelacic S,, Boster DR,, Watkins SL,, Tarr PI . 2012. Risk factors for the hemolytic uremic syndrome in children infected with Escherichia coli O157:H7: a multivariable analysis. Clin Infect Dis 55 : 33– 41.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
32. Gasser C,, Gautier E,, Steck A,, Siebenmann RE,, Oechslin R . 1955. [Hemolytic-uremic syndrome: bilateral necrosis of the renal cortex in acute acquired hemolytic anemia]. Schweiz Med Wochenschr 85 : 905– 909.[PubMed]
33. Fahr T, . 1925. Kreislaufstörungen in der Niere, p. 121– 155. In Fahr T,, Gruber G,, Koch M,, Lubarsch O,, Stoerk O (ed.), Harnorgane Männliche Geschlechtsorgane, vol. 6. Springer, Vienna, Austria. [CrossRef]
34. Bamforth J . 1923. A case of symmetrical cortical necrosis of the kidneys occurring in an adult man. J Pathol Bacteriol 26 : 40– 45.[CrossRef]
35. Campbell AC,, Henderson JL . 1949. Symmetrical cortical necrosis of the kidneys in infancy and childhood. Arch Dis Child 24 : 269– 285, illust.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
36. Dunn JS,, Montgomery GL . 1941. Acute necrotising glomerulonephritis. J Pathol Bacteriol 52 : 1– 16.[CrossRef]
37. Hensley WJ . 1952. Haemolytic anaemia in acute glomerulonephritis. Australas Ann Med 1 : 180– 185.[PubMed]
38. Leopold SR,, Magrini V,, Holt NJ,, Shaikh N,, Mardis ER,, Cagno J,, Ogura Y,, Iguchi A,, Hayashi T,, Mellmann A,, Karch H,, Besser TE,, Sawyer SA,, Whittam TS,, Tarr PI . 2009. A precise reconstruction of the emergence and constrained radiations of Escherichia coli O157 portrayed by backbone concatenomic analysis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106 : 8713– 8718.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
39. O’Brien AO,, Lively TA,, Chen ME,, Rothman SW,, Formal SB . 1983. Escherichia coli O157:H7 strains associated with haemorrhagic colitis in the United States produce a Shigella dysenteriae 1 (SHIGA) like cytotoxin. Lancet 1 : 702. [PubMed] [CrossRef]
40. O’Brien AD,, LaVeck GD,, Thompson MR,, Formal SB . 1982. Production of Shigella dysenteriae type 1-like cytotoxin by Escherichia coli . J Infect Dis 146 : 763– 769.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
41. Johnson WM,, Lior H,, Bezanson GS . 1983. Cytotoxic Escherichia coli O157:H7 associated with haemorrhagic colitis in Canada. Lancet 1 : 76. [PubMed] [CrossRef]
42. O’Brien AD,, LaVeck GD . 1983. Purification and characterization of a Shigella dysenteriae 1-like toxin produced by Escherichia coli . Infect Immun 40 : 675– 683.[PubMed]
43. Neill MA,, Tarr PI,, Clausen CR,, Christie DL,, Hickman RO . 1987. Escherichia coli O157:H7 as the predominant pathogen associated with the hemolytic uremic syndrome: a prospective study in the Pacific Northwest. Pediatrics 80 : 37– 40.[PubMed]
44. Tarr PI,, Neill MA,, Clausen CR,, Watkins SL,, Christie DL,, Hickman RO . 1990. Escherichia coli O157:H7 and the hemolytic uremic syndrome: importance of early cultures in establishing the etiology. J Infect Dis 162 : 553– 556.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
45. Rowe PC,, Orrbine E,, Lior H,, Wells GA,, Yetisir E,, Clulow M,, McLaine PN . 1998. Risk of hemolytic uremic syndrome after sporadic Escherichia coli O157:H7 infection: results of a Canadian collaborative study. Investigators of the Canadian Pediatric Kidney Disease Research Center. J Pediatr 132 : 777– 782.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
46. Rivas M,, Miliwebsky E,, Chinen I,, Roldan CD,, Balbi L,, Garcia B,, Fiorilli G,, Sosa-Estani S,, Kincaid J,, Rangel J,, Griffin PM , Case-Control Study Group . 2006. Characterization and epidemiologic subtyping of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli strains isolated from hemolytic uremic syndrome and diarrhea cases in Argentina. Foodborne Pathog Dis 3 : 88– 96.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
47. Pollock KG,, Young D,, Beattie TJ,, Todd WT . 2008. Clinical surveillance of thrombotic microangiopathies in Scotland, 2003-2005. Epidemiol Infect 136 : 115– 121.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
48. Hadler JL,, Clogher P,, Hurd S,, Phan Q,, Mandour M,, Bemis K,, Marcus R . 2011. Ten-year trends and risk factors for non-O157 Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli found through Shiga toxin testing, Connecticut, 2000–2009. Clin Infect Dis 53 : 269– 276.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
49. Mody RK,, Luna-Gierke RE,, Jones TF,, Comstock N,, Hurd S,, Scheftel J,, Lathrop S,, Smith G,, Palmer A,, Strockbine N,, Talkington D,, Mahon BE,, Hoekstra RM,, Griffin PM . 2012. Infections in pediatric postdiarrheal hemolytic uremic syndrome: factors associated with identifying shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli . Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 166 : 902– 909.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
50. Werber D,, Bielaszewska M,, Frank C,, Stark K,, Karch H . 2011. Watch out for the even eviler cousin-sorbitol-fermenting E coli O157. Lancet 377 : 298– 299.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
51. Chapman PA,, Siddons CA . 1996. A comparison of immunomagnetic separation and direct culture for the isolation of verocytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli O157 from cases of bloody diarrhoea, non-bloody diarrhoea and asymptomatic contacts. J Med Microbiol 44 : 267– 271.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
52. Fey PD,, Wickert RS,, Rupp ME,, Safranek TJ,, Hinrichs SH . 2000. Prevalence of non-O157:H7 shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli in diarrheal stool samples from Nebraska. Emerg Infect Dis 6 : 530– 533.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
53. Carroll KC,, Adamson K,, Korgenski K,, Croft A,, Hankemeier R,, Daly J,, Park CH . 2003. Comparison of a commercial reversed passive latex agglutination assay to an enzyme immunoassay for the detection of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli . Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 22 : 689– 692.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
54. Manning SD,, Madera RT,, Schneider W,, Dietrich SE,, Khalife W,, Brown W,, Whittam TS,, Somsel P,, Rudrik JT . 2007. Surveillance for Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli, Michigan, 2001–2005. Emerg Infect Dis 13 : 318– 321.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
55. Teel LD,, Daly JA,, Jerris RC,, Maul D,, Svanas G,, O’Brien AD,, Park CH . 2007. Rapid detection of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli by optical immunoassay. J Clin Microbiol 45 : 3377– 3380.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
56. Park CH,, Kim HJ,, Hixon DL,, Bubert A . 2003. Evaluation of the duopath verotoxin test for detection of shiga toxins in cultures of human stools. J Clin Microbiol 41 : 2650– 2653.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
57. Gould LH,, Bopp C,, Strockbine N,, Atkinson R,, Baselski V,, Body B,, Carey R,, Crandall C,, Hurd S,, Kaplan R,, Neill M,, Shea S,, Somsel P,, Tobin-D’Angelo M,, Griffin PM,, Gerner-Smidt P , Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) . 2009. Recommendations for diagnosis of shiga toxin–producing Escherichia coli infections by clinical laboratories. MMWR Recomm Rep 58 : 1– 14.[PubMed]
58. Grys TE,, Sloan LM,, Rosenblatt JE,, Patel R . 2009. Rapid and sensitive detection of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli from nonenriched stool specimens by real-time PCR in comparison to enzyme immunoassay and culture. J Clin Microbiol 47 : 2008– 2012.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
59. Vallieres E,, Saint-Jean M,, Rallu F . 2013. Comparison of three different methods for detection of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli in a tertiary pediatric care center. J Clin Microbiol 51 : 481– 486.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
60. Werber D,, Mason BW,, Evans MR,, Salmon RL . 2008. Preventing household transmission of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O157 infection: promptly separating siblings might be the key. Clin Infect Dis 46 : 1189– 1196.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
61. Chandler WL,, Jelacic S,, Boster DR,, Ciol MA,, Williams GD,, Watkins SL,, Igarashi T,, Tarr PI . 2002. Prothrombotic coagulation abnormalities preceding the hemolytic-uremic syndrome. N Engl J Med 346 : 23– 32.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
62. Balestracci A,, Martin SM,, Toledo I,, Alvarado C,, Wainsztein RE . 2012. Dehydration at admission increased the need for dialysis in hemolytic uremic syndrome children. Pediatr Nephrol 27 : 1407– 1410.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
63. Coad NA,, Marshall T,, Rowe B,, Taylor CM . 1991. Changes in the postenteropathic form of the hemolytic uremic syndrome in children. Clin Nephrol 35 : 10– 16.[PubMed]
64. Oakes RS,, Siegler RL,, McReynolds MA,, Pysher T,, Pavia AT . 2006. Predictors of fatality in postdiarrheal hemolytic uremic syndrome. Pediatrics 117 : 1656– 1662.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
65. Ojeda JM,, Kohout I,, Cuestas E . 2013. Dehydration upon admission is a risk factor for incomplete recovery of renal function in children with haemolytic uremic syndrome. Nefrologia 33 : 372– 376.[PubMed]
66. Holtz LR,, Neill MA,, Tarr PI . 2009. Acute bloody diarrhea: a medical emergency for patients of all ages. Gastroenterology 136 : 1887– 1898.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
67. Bell BP,, Griffin PM,, Lozano P,, Christie DL,, Kobayashi JM,, Tarr PI . 1997. Predictors of hemolytic uremic syndrome in children during a large outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infections. Pediatrics 100 : E12. [PubMed] [CrossRef]
68. Cimolai N,, Basalyga S,, Mah DG,, Morrison BJ,, Carter JE . 1994. A continuing assessment of risk factors for the development of Escherichia coli O157:H7-associated hemolytic uremic syndrome. Clin Nephrol 42 : 85– 89.[PubMed]
69. Misurac JM,, Knoderer CA,, Leiser JD,, Nailescu C,, Wilson AC,, Andreoli SP . 2013. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are an important cause of acute kidney injury in children. J Pediatr 162 : 1153– 1159, 1159 e1.[PubMed]
70. John CM,, Shukla R,, Jones CA . 2007. Using NSAID in volume depleted children can precipitate acute renal failure. Arch Dis Child 92 : 524– 526.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
71. Havens PL,, O’Rourke PP,, Hahn J,, Higgins J,, Walker AM . 1988. Laboratory and clinical variables to predict outcome in hemolytic-uremic syndrome. Am J Dis Child 142 : 961– 964.[PubMed]
72. Vitacco M,, Sanchez Avalos J,, Gianantonio CA . 1973. Heparin therapy in the hemolytic-uremic syndrome. J Pediatr 83 : 271– 275.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
73. Walters MD,, Matthei IU,, Kay R,, Dillon MJ,, Barratt TM . 1989. The polymorphonuclear leucocyte count in childhood haemolytic uraemic syndrome. Pediatr Nephrol 3 : 130– 134.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
74. Milford DV,, Staten J,, MacGreggor I,, Dawes J,, Taylor CM,, Hill FG . 1991. Prognostic markers in diarrhoea-associated haemolytic-uraemic syndrome: initial neutrophil count, human neutrophil elastase and von Willebrand factor antigen. Nephrol Dial Transplant 6 : 232– 237.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
75. Balestracci A,, Martin SM,, Toledo I,, Alvarado C,, Wainsztein RE . 2014. Laboratory predictors of acute dialysis in hemolytic uremic syndrome. Pediatr Int 56 : 234– 239.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
76. Dolislager D,, Tune B . 1978. The hemolytic-uremic syndrome: spectrum of severity and significance of prodrome. Am J Dis Child 132 : 55– 58.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
77. Gianantonio CA,, Vitacco M,, Mendilaharzu F,, Gallo GE,, Sojo ET . 1973. The hemolytic-uremic syndrome. Nephron 11 : 174– 192.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
78. Gianantonio CA,, Vitacco M,, Mendilaharzu F,, Gallo G . 1968. The hemolytic-uremic syndrome. Renal status of 76 patients at long-term follow-up. J Pediatr 72 : 757– 765.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
79. Tonshoff B,, Sammet A,, Sanden I,, Mehls O,, Waldherr R,, Scharer K . 1994. Outcome and prognostic determinants in the hemolytic uremic syndrome of children. Nephron 68 : 63– 70.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
80. Siegler RL,, Pavia AT,, Christofferson RD,, Milligan MK . 1994. A 20-year population-based study of postdiarrheal hemolytic uremic syndrome in Utah. Pediatrics 94 : 35– 40.[PubMed]
81. Mizusawa Y,, Pitcher LA,, Burke JR,, Falk MC,, Mizushima W . 1996. Survey of haemolytic-uraemic syndrome in Queensland 1979–1995. Med J Aust 165 : 188– 191.[PubMed]
82. Spizzirri FD,, Rahman RC,, Bibiloni N,, Ruscasso JD,, Amoreo OR . 1997. Childhood hemolytic uremic syndrome in Argentina: long-term follow-up and prognostic features. Pediatr Nephrol 11 : 156– 160.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
83. Mencia Bartolome S,, Martinez de Azagra A,, de Vicente Aymat A,, Monleon Luque M,, Casado Flores J . 1999. [Uremic hemolytic syndrome. Analysis of 43 cases]. An Esp Pediatr 50 : 467– 470 (In Spanish).[PubMed]
84. Huseman D,, Gellermann J,, Vollmer I,, Ohde I,, Devaux S,, Ehrich JH,, Filler G . 1999. Long-term prognosis of hemolytic uremic syndrome and effective renal plasma flow. Pediatr Nephrol 13 : 672– 677.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
85. Loirat C . 2001. [Post-diarrhea hemolytic-uremic syndrome: clinical aspects]. Arch Pediatr 8 Suppl 4 : 776s– 784s (In French).[PubMed] [CrossRef]
86. Garg AX,, Suri RS,, Barrowman N,, Rehman F,, Matsell D,, Rosas-Arellano MP,, Salvadori M,, Haynes RB,, Clark WF . 2003. Long-term renal prognosis of diarrhea-associated hemolytic uremic syndrome: a systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression. JAMA 290 : 1360– 1370.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
87. Oakes RS,, Kirkham JK,, Nelson RD,, Siegler RL . 2008. Duration of oliguria and anuria as predictors of chronic renal-related sequelae in post-diarrheal hemolytic uremic syndrome. Pediatr Nephrol 23 : 1303– 1308.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
88. Nestoridi E,, Kushak RI,, Duguerre D,, Grabowski EF,, Ingelfinger JR . 2005. Up-regulation of tissue factor activity on human proximal tubular epithelial cells in response to Shiga toxin. Kidney Int 67 : 2254– 2266.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
89. Hughes AK,, Stricklett PK,, Kohan DE . 1998. Cytotoxic effect of Shiga toxin-1 on human proximal tubule cells. Kidney Int 54 : 426– 437.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
90. Taguchi T,, Uchida H,, Kiyokawa N,, Mori T,, Sato N,, Horie H,, Takeda T,, Fujimoto J . 1998. Verotoxins induce apoptosis in human renal tubular epithelium derived cells. Kidney Int 53 : 1681– 1688.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
91. Kaneko K,, Kiyokawa N,, Ohtomo Y,, Nagaoka R,, Yamashiro Y,, Taguchi T,, Mori T,, Fujimoto J,, Takeda T . 2001. Apoptosis of renal tubular cells in Shiga-toxin-mediated hemolytic uremic syndrome. Nephron 87 : 182– 185.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
92. Abuelo JG . 2007. Normotensive ischemic acute renal failure. N Engl J Med 357 : 797– 805.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
93. Davis TK,, McKee R,, Schnadower D,, Tarr PI . 2013. Treatment of Shiga toxin–Producing Escherichia coli infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am 27 : 577– 597.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
94. Weil BR,, Andreoli SP,, Billmire DF . 2010. Bleeding risk for surgical dialysis procedures in children with hemolytic uremic syndrome. Pediatr Nephrol 25 : 1693– 1698.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
95. Balestracci A,, Martin SM,, Toledo I,, Alvarado C,, Wainsztein RE . 2013. Impact of platelet transfusions in children with post-diarrheal hemolytic uremic syndrome. Pediatr Nephrol 28 : 919– 925.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
96. Schulman SL,, Kaplan BS . 1996. Management of patients with hemolytic uremic syndrome demonstrating severe azotemia but not anuria. Pediatr Nephrol 10 : 671– 674.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
97. Sutherland SM,, Zappitelli M,, Alexander SR,, Chua AN,, Brophy PD,, Bunchman TE,, Hackbarth R,, Somers MJ,, Baum M,, Symons JM,, Flores FX,, Benfield M,, Askenazi D,, Chand D,, Fortenberry JD,, Mahan JD,, McBryde K,, Blowey D,, Goldstein SL . 2010. Fluid overload and mortality in children receiving continuous renal replacement therapy: the prospective pediatric continuous renal replacement therapy registry. Am J Kidney Dis 55 : 316– 325.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
98. Kaplan BS,, Thomson PD . 1976. Hyperuricemia in the hemolytic-uremic syndrome. Am J Dis Child 130 : 854– 856.[PubMed]
99. Robson WL,, Leung AK,, Brant R . 1993. Relationship of the recovery in the glomerular filtration rate to the duration of anuria in diarrhea-associated hemolytic uremic syndrome. Am J Nephrol 13 : 194– 197.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
100. Proesmans W,, VanCauter A,, Thijs L,, Lijnen P . 1994. Plasma renin activity in haemolytic uraemic syndrome. Pediatr Nephrol 8 : 444– 446.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
101. Katz J,, Krawitz S,, Sacks PV,, Levin SE,, Thomson P,, Levin J,, Metz J . 1973. Platelet, erythrocyte, and fibrinogen kinetics in the hemolytic-uremic syndrome of infancy. J Pediatr 83 : 739– 748.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
102. Nakahata T,, Tanaka H,, Tateyama T,, Ueda T,, Suzuki K,, Osari S,, Kasai M,, Waga S . 2001. Thrombotic stroke in a child with diarrhea-associated hemolytic-uremic syndrome with a good recovery. Tohoku J Exp Med 193 : 73– 77.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
103. Trevathan E,, Dooling EC . 1987. Large thrombotic strokes in hemolytic-uremic syndrome. J Pediatr 111 : 863– 866.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
104. Steinborn M,, Leiz S,, Rudisser K,, Griebel M,, Harder T,, Hahn H . 2004. CT and MRI in haemolytic uraemic syndrome with central nervous system involvement: distribution of lesions and prognostic value of imaging findings. Pediatr Radiol 34 : 805– 810.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
105. Nathanson S,, Kwon T,, Elmaleh M,, Charbit M,, Launay EA,, Harambat J,, Brun M,, Ranchin B,, Bandin F,, Cloarec S,, Bourdat-Michel G,, Pietrement C,, Champion G,, Ulinski T,, Deschenes G . 2010. Acute neurological involvement in diarrhea-associated hemolytic uremic syndrome. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 5 : 1218– 1228.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
106. Weissenborn K,, Donnerstag F,, Kielstein JT,, Heeren M,, Worthmann H,, Hecker H,, Schmitt R,, Schiffer M,, Pasedag T,, Schuppner R,, Tryc AB,, Raab P,, Hartmann H,, Ding XQ,, Hafer C,, Menne J,, Schmidt BM,, Bultmann E,, Haller H,, Dengler R,, Lanfermann H,, Giesemann AM . 2012. Neurologic manifestations of E coli infection-induced hemolytic-uremic syndrome in adults. Neurology 79 : 1466– 1473.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
107. Signorini E,, Lucchi S,, Mastrangelo M,, Rapuzzi S,, Edefonti A,, Fossali E . 2000. Central nervous system involvement in a child with hemolytic uremic syndrome. Pediatr Nephrol 14 : 990– 992.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
108. Steele BT,, Murphy N,, Chuang SH,, McGreal D,, Arbus GS . 1983. Recovery from prolonged coma in hemolytic uremic syndrome. J Pediatr 102 : 402– 404.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
109. Steinberg A,, Ish-Horowitcz M,, el-Peleg O,, Mor J,, Branski D . 1986. Stroke in a patient with hemolytic-uremic syndrome with a good outcome. Brain Dev 8 : 70– 72.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
110. Kahn SI,, Tolkan SR,, Kothari O,, Garella S . 1982. Spontaneous recovery of the hemolytic uremic syndrome with prolonged renal and neurological manifestations. Nephron 32 : 188– 191.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
111. Magnus T,, Rother J,, Simova O,, Meier-Cillien M,, Repenthin J,, Moller F,, Gbadamosi J,, Panzer U,, Wengenroth M,, Hagel C,, Kluge S,, Stahl RK,, Wegscheider K,, Urban P,, Eckert B,, Glatzel M,, Fiehler J,, Gerloff C . 2012. The neurological syndrome in adults during the 2011 northern German E. coli serotype O104:H4 outbreak. Brain 135 : 1850– 1859.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
112. Braune SA,, Wichmann D,, von Heinz MC,, Nierhaus A,, Becker H,, Meyer TN,, Meyer GP,, Muller-Schulz M,, Fricke J,, de Weerth A,, Hoepker WW,, Fiehler J,, Magnus T,, Gerloff C,, Panzer U,, Stahl RA,, Wegscheider K,, Kluge S . 2013. Clinical features of critically ill patients with Shiga toxin-induced hemolytic uremic syndrome. Crit Care Med 41 : 1702– 1710.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
113. Murphy EJ . 2005. Acute pain management pharmacology for the patient with concurrent renal or hepatic disease. Anaesth Intensive Care 33 : 311– 322.[PubMed]
114. Niscola P,, Scaramucci L,, Vischini G,, Giovannini M,, Ferrannini M,, Massa P,, Tatangelo P,, Galletti M,, Palumbo R . 2010. The use of major analgesics in patients with renal dysfunction. Curr Drug Targets 11 : 752– 758.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
115. Lapeyraque AL,, Malina M,, Fremeaux-Bacchi V,, Boppel T,, Kirschfink M,, Oualha M,, Proulx F,, Clermont MJ,, Le Deist F,, Niaudet P,, Schaefer F . 2011. Eculizumab in severe Shiga-toxin-associated HUS. N Engl J Med 364 : 2561– 2563.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
116. Orth D,, Khan AB,, Naim A,, Grif K,, Brockmeyer J,, Karch H,, Joannidis M,, Clark SJ,, Day AJ,, Fidanzi S,, Stoiber H,, Dierich MP,, Zimmerhackl LB,, Wurzner R . 2009. Shiga toxin activates complement and binds factor H: evidence for an active role of complement in hemolytic uremic syndrome. J Immunol 182 : 6394– 6400.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
117. Morigi M,, Galbusera M,, Gastoldi S,, Locatelli M,, Buelli S,, Pezzotta A,, Pagani C,, Noris M,, Gobbi M,, Stravalaci M,, Rottoli D,, Tedesco F,, Remuzzi G,, Zoja C . 2011. Alternative pathway activation of complement by Shiga toxin promotes exuberant C3a formation that triggers microvascular thrombosis. J Immunol 187 : 172– 180.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
118. Stahl AL,, Sartz L,, Karpman D . 2011. Complement activation on platelet-leukocyte complexes and microparticles in enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli-induced hemolytic uremic syndrome. Blood 117 : 5503– 5513.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
119. Lopez EL,, Contrini MM,, Glatstein E,, Ayala SG,, Santoro R,, Ezcurra G,, Teplitz E,, Matsumoto Y,, Sato H,, Sakai K,, Katsuura Y,, Hoshide S,, Morita T,, Harning R,, Brookman S . 2012. An epidemiologic surveillance of Shiga-like toxin-producing Escherichia coli infection in Argentinean children: risk factors and serum Shiga-like toxin 2 values. Pediatr Infect Dis J 31 : 20– 24.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
120. Lee BC,, Mayer CL,, Leibowitz CS,, Stearns-Kurosawa DJ,, Kurosawa S . 2013. Quiescent complement in nonhuman primates during E coli Shiga toxin-induced hemolytic uremic syndrome and thrombotic microangiopathy. Blood 122 : 803– 806.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
121. Thurman JM,, Marians R,, Emlen W,, Wood S,, Smith C,, Akana H,, Holers VM,, Lesser M,, Kline M,, Hoffman C,, Christen E,, Trachtman H . 2009. Alternative pathway of complement in children with diarrhea-associated hemolytic uremic syndrome. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 4 : 1920– 1924.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
122. Ganter MT,, Brohi K,, Cohen MJ,, Shaffer LA,, Walsh MC,, Stahl GL,, Pittet JF . 2007. Role of the alternative pathway in the early complement activation following major trauma. Shock 28 : 29– 34.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
123. Römer S,, Schaumburg R,, Karch H,, Schwindt W,, Waltenberger J,, Lebiedz P . 2012. Septic shock and ARDS after Eculizumab application in Shiga-toxin associated HUS during the outbreak of Shiga toxin-producing enterohaemorrhagic E. coli O104:H4. Medizinische Klinik, Intensivmedizin und Notfallmedizin 107 : 329– 330.
124. Tarr PI . 2009. Shiga toxin-associated hemolytic uremic syndrome and thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura: distinct mechanisms of pathogenesis. Kidney Int Suppl : S29– S32. [PubMed] [CrossRef]
125. Colic E,, Dieperink H,, Titlestad K,, Tepel M . 2011. Management of an acute outbreak of diarrhoea-associated haemolytic uraemic syndrome with early plasma exchange in adults from southern Denmark: an observational study. Lancet 378 : 1089– 1093.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
126. Veyradier A,, Obert B,, Haddad E,, Cloarec S,, Nivet H,, Foulard M,, Lesure F,, Delattre P,, Lakhdari M,, Meyer D,, Girma JP,, Loirat C . 2003. Severe deficiency of the specific von Willebrand factor-cleaving protease (ADAMTS 13) activity in a subgroup of children with atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome. J Pediatr 142 : 310– 317.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
127. Kielstein JT,, Beutel G,, Fleig S,, Steinhoff J,, Meyer TN,, Hafer C,, Kuhlmann U,, Bramstedt J,, Panzer U,, Vischedyk M,, Busch V,, Ries W,, Mitzner S,, Mees S,, Stracke S,, Nurnberger J,, Gerke P,, Wiesner M,, Sucke B,, Abu-Tair M,, Kribben A,, Klause N,, Schindler R,, Merkel F,, Schnatter S,, Dorresteijn EM,, Samuelsson O,, Brunkhorst R , Collaborators of the DGfN STEC-HUS registry . 2012. Best supportive care and therapeutic plasma exchange with or without eculizumab in Shiga-toxin-producing E. coli O104:H4 induced haemolytic-uraemic syndrome: an analysis of the German STEC-HUS registry. Nephrol Dial Transplant 27 : 3807– 3815.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
128. Samuelsson O,, Follin P,, Rundgren M,, Rylander C,, Selga D,, Stahl A . 2012. [The HUS epidemic in the summer of 2011 was severe. German and Swedish experiences of the EHEC outbreak]. Lakartidningen 109 : 1230– 1234 (In Swedish).[PubMed]
129. Nitschke M,, Sayk F,, Hartel C,, Roseland RT,, Hauswaldt S,, Steinhoff J,, Fellermann K,, Derad I,, Wellhoner P,, Buning J,, Tiemer B,, Katalinic A,, Rupp J,, Lehnert H,, Solbach W,, Knobloch JK . 2012. Association between azithromycin therapy and duration of bacterial shedding among patients with Shiga toxin-producing enteroaggregative Escherichia coli O104:H4. JAMA 307 : 1046– 1052.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
130. Som S,, Deford CC,, Kaiser ML,, Terrell DR,, Kremer Hovinga JA,, Lammle B,, George JN,, Vesely SK . 2012. Decreasing frequency of plasma exchange complications in patients treated for thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura-hemolytic uremic syndrome, 1996 to 2011. Transfusion 52 : 2525– 2532; quiz 2524.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
131. Havens PL,, Hoffman GM,, Shith KJ . 1989. The homogeneous nature of the hemolytic uremic syndrome. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 28 : 482– 483.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
132. Kaplan BS,, Chesney RW,, Drummond KN . 1975. Hemolytic uremic syndrome in families. N Engl J Med 292 : 1090– 1093.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
133. Karpac CA,, Li X,, Terrell DR,, Kremer Hovinga JA,, Lammle B,, Vesely SK,, George JN . 2008. Sporadic bloody diarrhoea-associated thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura-haemolytic uraemic syndrome: an adult and paediatric comparison. Br J Haematol 141 : 696– 707.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
134. Geerdink LM,, Westra D,, van Wijk JA,, Dorresteijn EM,, Lilien MR,, Davin JC,, Komhoff M,, Van Hoeck K,, van der Vlugt A,, van den Heuvel LP,, van de Kar NC . 2012. Atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome in children: complement mutations and clinical characteristics. Pediatr Nephrol 27 : 1283– 1291.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
135. Noris M,, Caprioli J,, Bresin E,, Mossali C,, Pianetti G,, Gamba S,, Daina E,, Fenili C,, Castelletti F,, Sorosina A,, Piras R,, Donadelli R,, Maranta R,, van der Meer I,, Conway EM,, Zipfel PF,, Goodship TH,, Remuzzi G . 2010. Relative role of genetic complement abnormalities in sporadic and familial aHUS and their impact on clinical phenotype. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 5 : 1844– 1859.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
136. Westra D,, Wetzels JF,, Volokhina EB,, van den Heuvel LP,, van de Kar NC . 2012. A new era in the diagnosis and treatment of atypical haemolytic uraemic syndrome. Neth J Med 70 : 121– 129.[PubMed]
137. Ariceta G,, Besbas N,, Johnson S,, Karpman D,, Landau D,, Licht C,, Loirat C,, Pecoraro C,, Taylor CM,, Van de Kar N,, Vandewalle J,, Zimmerhackl LB , European Paediatric Study Group for HUS . 2009. Guideline for the investigation and initial therapy of diarrhea-negative hemolytic uremic syndrome. Pediatr Nephrol 24 : 687– 696.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
138. Espie E,, Grimont F,, Mariani-Kurkdjian P,, Bouvet P,, Haeghebaert S,, Filliol I,, Loirat C,, Decludt B,, Minh NN,, Vaillant V,, de Valk H . 2008. Surveillance of hemolytic uremic syndrome in children less than 15 years of age, a system to monitor O157 and non-O157 Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli infections in France, 1996-2006. Pediatr Infect Dis J 27 : 595– 601.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
139. Chart H,, Cheasty T . 2008. Human infections with verocytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli O157—10 years of E. coli O157 serodiagnosis. J Med Microbiol 57 : 1389– 1393.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
140. Fernandez-Brando RJ,, Bentancor LV,, Mejias MP,, Ramos MV,, Exeni A,, Exeni C,, Laso Mdel C,, Exeni R,, Isturiz MA,, Palermo MS . 2011. Antibody response to Shiga toxins in Argentinean children with enteropathic hemolytic uremic syndrome at acute and long-term follow-up periods. PLoS One 6 : e19136. [PubMed] [CrossRef]
141. Close RM,, Ejidokun OO,, Verlander NQ,, Fraser G,, Meltzer M,, Rehman Y,, Muir P,, Ninis N,, Stuart JM . 2011. Early diagnosis model for meningitis supports public health decision making. J Infect 63 : 32– 38.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
142. Bokete TN,, O’Callahan CM,, Clausen CR,, Tang NM,, Tran N,, Moseley SL,, Fritsche TR,, Tarr PI . 1993. Shiga-like toxin-producing Escherichia coli in Seattle children: a prospective study. Gastroenterology 105 : 1724– 1731.[PubMed]
143. Carter AO,, Borczyk AA,, Carlson JA,, Harvey B,, Hockin JC,, Karmali MA,, Krishnan C,, Korn DA,, Lior H . 1987. A severe outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7-associated hemorrhagic colitis in a nursing home. N Engl J Med 317 : 1496– 1500.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
144. Pavia AT,, Nichols CR,, Green DP,, Tauxe RV,, Mottice S,, Greene KD,, Wells JG,, Siegler RL,, Brewer ED,, Hannon D . 1990. Hemolytic-uremic syndrome during an outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infections in institutions for mentally retarded persons: clinical and epidemiologic observations. J Pediatr 116 : 544– 551.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
145. Proulx F,, Turgeon JP,, Delage G,, Lafleur L,, Chicoine L . 1992. Randomized, controlled trial of antibiotic therapy for Escherichia coli O157:H7 enteritis. J Pediatr 121 : 299– 303.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
146. Wong CS,, Jelacic S,, Habeeb RL,, Watkins SL,, Tarr PI . 2000. The risk of the hemolytic-uremic syndrome after antibiotic treatment of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infections. N Engl J Med 342 : 1930– 1936.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
147. Dundas S,, Todd WT,, Stewart AI,, Murdoch PS,, Chaudhuri AK,, Hutchinson SJ . 2001. The central Scotland Escherichia coli O157:H7 outbreak: risk factors for the hemolytic uremic syndrome and death among hospitalized patients. Clin Infect Dis 33 : 923– 931.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
148. Smith KE,, Wilker PR,, Reiter PL,, Hedican EB,, Bender JB,, Hedberg CW . 2012. Antibiotic treatment of Escherichia coli O157 infection and the risk of hemolytic uremic syndrome, Minnesota. Pediatr Infect Dis J 31 : 37– 41.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
149. Grisaru S,, Morgunov MA,, Samuel SM,, Midgley JP,, Wade AW,, Tee JB,, Hamiwka LA . 2011. Acute renal replacement therapy in children with diarrhea-associated hemolytic uremic syndrome: a single center 16 years of experience. Int J Nephrol 2011 : 930539. [PubMed] [CrossRef]
150. Adragna M,, Balestracci A,, Garcia Chervo L,, Steinbrun S,, Delgado N,, Briones L . 2012. Acute dialysis-associated peritonitis in children with D+ hemolytic uremic syndrome. Pediatr Nephrol 27 : 637– 642.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
151. Grodinsky S,, Telmesani A,, Robson WL,, Fick G,, Scott RB . 1990. Gastrointestinal manifestations of hemolytic uremic syndrome: recognition of pancreatitis. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 11 : 518– 524.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
152. Brandt JR,, Joseph MW,, Fouser LS,, Tarr PI,, Zelikovic I,, McDonald RA,, Avner ED,, McAfee NG,, Watkins SL . 1998. Cholelithiasis following Escherichia coli O157:H7-associated hemolytic uremic syndrome. Pediatr Nephrol 12 : 222– 225.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
153. Schweighofer S Jr,, Primack WA,, Slovis TL,, Fleischmann LE,, Slovis TL,, Hight DW . 1980. Cholelithiasis associated with the hemolytic-uremic syndrome. Am J Dis Child 134 : 622. [PubMed]
154. Suri RS,, Mahon JL,, Clark WF,, Moist LM,, Salvadori M,, Garg AX . 2009. Relationship between Escherichia coli O157:H7 and diabetes mellitus. Kidney Int Suppl : S44– S46.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
155. US Census Bureau . 2010. 2010 Census Population and Housing Tables (CPH-Ts). http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/00000.html. Accessed on June 18, 2014.
156. Suri RS,, Clark WF,, Barrowman N,, Mahon JL,, Thiessen-Philbrook HR,, Rosas-Arellano MP,, Zarnke K,, Garland JS,, Garg AX . 2005. Diabetes during diarrhea-associated hemolytic uremic syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Care 28 : 2556– 2562.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
157. Andreoli SP,, Bergstein JM . 1982. Development of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus during the hemolytic-uremic syndrome. J Pediatr 100 : 541– 545.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
158. Tapper D,, Tarr P,, Avner E,, Brandt J,, Waldhausen J . 1995. Lessons learned in the management of hemolytic uremic syndrome in children. J Pediatr Surg 30 : 158– 163.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
159. Dundas S,, Todd WT . 2000. Clinical presentation, complications and treatment of infection with verocytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli. Challenges for the clinician. Symp Ser Soc Appl Microbiol : 24S– 30S.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
160. Whitington PF,, Friedman AL,, Chesney RW . 1979. Gastrointestinal disease in the hemolytic-uremic syndrome. Gastroenterology 76 : 728– 733.[PubMed]
161. Yates RS,, Osterholm RK . 1980. Hemolytic-uremic syndrome colitis. J Clin Gastroenterol 2 : 359– 363.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
162. Sawaf H,, Sharp MJ,, Youn KJ,, Jewell PA,, Rabbani A . 1978. Ischemic colitis and stricture after hemolytic-uremic syndrome. Pediatrics 61 : 315– 317.[PubMed]
163. Abu-Arafeh I,, Gray E,, Youngson G,, Auchterlonie I,, Russell G . 1995. Myocarditis and haemolytic uraemic syndrome. Arch Dis Child 72 : 46– 47.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
164. Sturm V,, Menke MN,, Landau K,, Laube GF,, Neuhaus TJ . 2010. Ocular involvement in paediatric haemolytic uraemic syndrome. Acta Ophthalmol 88 : 804– 807.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
165. Siegler RL,, Brewer ED,, Swartz M . 1988. Ocular involvement in hemolytic-uremic syndrome. J Pediatr 112 : 594– 597.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
166. Manton N,, Smith NM,, Byard RW . 2000. Unexpected childhood death due to hemolytic uremic syndrome. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 21 : 90– 92.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
167. Robson WL,, Leung AK,, Montgomery MD . 1991. Causes of death in hemolytic uremic syndrome. Child Nephrol Urol 11 : 228– 233.[PubMed]

Tables

Shiga Toxin/Verocytotoxin-Producing Escherichia coli Infections: Practical Clinical Perspectives
[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555818791.chap15-1,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555818791.chap15-1,properties={foaf_givenname=T. Keefe, foaf_name=T. Keefe Davis, foaf_surname=Davis, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555818791.chap15-aff1]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555818791.chap15-2,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555818791.chap15-2,properties={foaf_givenname=Nicole C. A. J., foaf_name=Nicole C. A. J. van De Kar, foaf_surname=van De Kar, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555818791.chap15-aff2]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555818791.chap15-3,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555818791.chap15-3,properties={foaf_givenname=Phillip I., foaf_name=Phillip I. Tarr, foaf_surname=Tarr, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555818791.chap15-aff3]]}]]
Citation: Davis T, van De Kar N, Tarr P. 2015. Shiga Toxin/Verocytotoxin-Producing Infections: Practical Clinical Perspectives, p 321-339. In Sperandio V, Hovde C (ed), Enterohemorrhagic and Other Shiga Toxin-Producing . ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/microbiolspec.EHEC-0025-2014
/content/10.1128/9781555818791.chap15.tab15-1
TABLE 1
Acuity pyramid
Generic image for table
TABLE 1

Acuity pyramid

Citation: Davis T, van De Kar N, Tarr P. 2015. Shiga Toxin/Verocytotoxin-Producing Infections: Practical Clinical Perspectives, p 321-339. In Sperandio V, Hovde C (ed), Enterohemorrhagic and Other Shiga Toxin-Producing . ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/microbiolspec.EHEC-0025-2014
/content/10.1128/9781555818791.chap15.tab15-2
TABLE 2
Summary of antibiotic experience in multiple case control studies of children and adults
Generic image for table
TABLE 2

Summary of antibiotic experience in multiple case control studies of children and adults

Citation: Davis T, van De Kar N, Tarr P. 2015. Shiga Toxin/Verocytotoxin-Producing Infections: Practical Clinical Perspectives, p 321-339. In Sperandio V, Hovde C (ed), Enterohemorrhagic and Other Shiga Toxin-Producing . ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/microbiolspec.EHEC-0025-2014
/content/10.1128/9781555818791.chap15.tab15-3
TABLE 3
Severity of HUS in series identified in PubMed published between 2009 and 2013, using search terms hemolytic-uremic syndrome AND children, on September 4, 2013
Generic image for table
TABLE 3

Severity of HUS in series identified in PubMed published between 2009 and 2013, using search terms hemolytic-uremic syndrome AND children, on September 4, 2013

Citation: Davis T, van De Kar N, Tarr P. 2015. Shiga Toxin/Verocytotoxin-Producing Infections: Practical Clinical Perspectives, p 321-339. In Sperandio V, Hovde C (ed), Enterohemorrhagic and Other Shiga Toxin-Producing . ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/microbiolspec.EHEC-0025-2014
/content/10.1128/9781555818791.chap15.tab15-4
TABLE 4
Selected nonnephrologic, nonhematologic complications of HUS
Generic image for table
TABLE 4

Selected nonnephrologic, nonhematologic complications of HUS

Citation: Davis T, van De Kar N, Tarr P. 2015. Shiga Toxin/Verocytotoxin-Producing Infections: Practical Clinical Perspectives, p 321-339. In Sperandio V, Hovde C (ed), Enterohemorrhagic and Other Shiga Toxin-Producing . ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/microbiolspec.EHEC-0025-2014

Back to top
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Please check the format of the address you have entered.
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error