1887

Chapter 39 : Fungi that Infect Humans

Authors: Julia R. Köhler1, Bernhard Hube2, Rosana Puccia3, Arturo Casadevall4, John R. Perfect5
VIEW AFFILIATIONS HIDE AFFILIATIONS
Affiliations: 1: Division of Infectious Disease, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115; 2: Department of Microbial Pathogenicity Mechanisms, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans Knoell Institute Jena (HKI), Jena, Germany; 3: Disciplina de Biologia Celular, Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina-Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; 4: Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205; 5: Division of Infectious Diseases, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710
Content Type: Monograph
Publication Year: 2017

Category: Microbial Genetics and Molecular Biology; Environmental Microbiology

MyBook is a cheap paperback edition of the original book and will be sold at uniform, low price.

Preview this chapter:
Preview Magnify
Zoom in
Zoomout

Fungi that Infect Humans, Page 1 of 2

| /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555819583/9781555819576_Chap39-1.gif /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555819583/9781555819576_Chap39-2.gif

Abstract:

In its short history of a century and a half, of which the last half-century brought the most dramatic advances, scientific medicine has found ways to cure or to treat millions of ill people who 200 years ago would have died early. Paradoxically, these successes of modern medicine have given rise to large groups of people at risk for fungal infections. Life-saving treatments may now breach normal immune functions, or susceptible patients such as premature newborns now survive long enough to become infected by a fungus. Invasive fungal infections have been very rare over most of our species’ history ( ), and the fungi that infect healthy humans are a small, if fascinating, group. Many more invasive fungal infections now occur in patients with an underlying serious illness.

Citation: Köhler J, Hube B, Puccia R, Casadevall A, Perfect J. 2017. Fungi that Infect Humans, p 813-843. In Heitman J, Howlett B, Crous P, Stukenbrock E, James T, Gow N (ed), The Fungal Kingdom. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/microbiolspec.FUNK-0014-2016
Highlighted Text: Show | Hide
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

Figures

Fungi that Infect Humans
[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555819583.chap39-1,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555819583.chap39-1,properties={foaf_givenname=Julia R., foaf_name=Julia R. Köhler, foaf_surname=Köhler, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555819583.chap39-aff1]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555819583.chap39-2,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555819583.chap39-2,properties={foaf_givenname=Bernhard, foaf_name=Bernhard Hube, foaf_surname=Hube, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555819583.chap39-aff2]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555819583.chap39-3,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555819583.chap39-3,properties={foaf_givenname=Rosana, foaf_name=Rosana Puccia, foaf_surname=Puccia, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555819583.chap39-aff3]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555819583.chap39-4,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555819583.chap39-4,properties={foaf_givenname=Arturo, foaf_name=Arturo Casadevall, foaf_surname=Casadevall, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555819583.chap39-aff4]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555819583.chap39-5,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555819583.chap39-5,properties={foaf_givenname=John R., foaf_name=John R. Perfect, foaf_surname=Perfect, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555819583.chap39-aff5]]}]]
Citation: Köhler J, Hube B, Puccia R, Casadevall A, Perfect J. 2017. Fungi that Infect Humans, p 813-843. In Heitman J, Howlett B, Crous P, Stukenbrock E, James T, Gow N (ed), The Fungal Kingdom. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/microbiolspec.FUNK-0014-2016
/content/10.1128/9781555819583.chap39.fig39-1
Figure 1

Clusters of cells in brochoalveolar lavage fluid of an 8-year-old boy, post-lung transplant. Gomori methenamine silver (GMS) stain. Scale bar, 20 μm. Chest film of a 17-year-old boy living with HIV, with pneumonia due to . Biopsy of skin nodule of a 9-year-old boy with aplastic anemia, containing numerous yeasts. GMS stain. Posterior-anterior chest film (D) and axial computed tomography scan (E) of a 16-year-old previously healthy girl with cavitating cryptococcal pneumonia. sp. hyphae in bowel wall of an adolescent boy, post-liver transplant. GMS stain. Scale bar, 20 μm. in maxillary sinusitis and osteomyelitis of a young man, post-intestinal transplant. In the human host, aspergilli produce conidiophores (prominently visible in the image on the right) only in air-filled spaces. GMS stain. Scale bars, 20 μm. in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of a 3-week-old neonate with adenosine deaminase deficiency. Scale bar, 20 μm. (All micrographs: Dr. Harry P. W. Kozakewich, Department of Pathology, Boston Children’s Hospital; Radiographs: Department of Radiology, Boston Children’s Hospital.)

10.1128/9781555819583/fig39-1_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555819583/fig39-1.gif
Image of Figure 1
Figure 1

Clusters of cells in brochoalveolar lavage fluid of an 8-year-old boy, post-lung transplant. Gomori methenamine silver (GMS) stain. Scale bar, 20 μm. Chest film of a 17-year-old boy living with HIV, with pneumonia due to . Biopsy of skin nodule of a 9-year-old boy with aplastic anemia, containing numerous yeasts. GMS stain. Posterior-anterior chest film (D) and axial computed tomography scan (E) of a 16-year-old previously healthy girl with cavitating cryptococcal pneumonia. sp. hyphae in bowel wall of an adolescent boy, post-liver transplant. GMS stain. Scale bar, 20 μm. in maxillary sinusitis and osteomyelitis of a young man, post-intestinal transplant. In the human host, aspergilli produce conidiophores (prominently visible in the image on the right) only in air-filled spaces. GMS stain. Scale bars, 20 μm. in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of a 3-week-old neonate with adenosine deaminase deficiency. Scale bar, 20 μm. (All micrographs: Dr. Harry P. W. Kozakewich, Department of Pathology, Boston Children’s Hospital; Radiographs: Department of Radiology, Boston Children’s Hospital.)

Citation: Köhler J, Hube B, Puccia R, Casadevall A, Perfect J. 2017. Fungi that Infect Humans, p 813-843. In Heitman J, Howlett B, Crous P, Stukenbrock E, James T, Gow N (ed), The Fungal Kingdom. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/microbiolspec.FUNK-0014-2016
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint

References

/content/book/10.1128/9781555819583.chap39
1. Robert VA,, Casadevall A . 2009. Vertebrate endothermy restricts most fungi as potential pathogens. J Infect Dis 200 : 1623– 1626.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
2. O’Brien HE,, Parrent JL,, Jackson JA,, Moncalvo JM,, Vilgalys R . 2005. Fungal community analysis by large-scale sequencing of environmental samples. Appl Environ Microbiol 71 : 5544– 5550.[CrossRef]
3. Blackwell M . 2011. The fungi: 1, 2, 3 ... 5.1 million species? Am J Bot 98 : 426– 438.[CrossRef]
4. Bowman BH,, White TJ,, Taylor JW . 1996. Human pathogeneic fungi and their close nonpathogenic relatives. Mol Phylogenet Evol 6 : 89– 96.[CrossRef]
5. Read DJ,, Ducket JG,, Francis R,, Ligron R,, Russell A . 2000. Symbiotic fungal associations in ‘lower’ land plants. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 355 : 815– 830.
6. Heckman DS,, Geiser DM,, Eidell BR,, Stauffer RL,, Kardos NL,, Hedges SB . 2001. Molecular evidence for the early colonization of land by fungi and plants. Science 293 : 1129– 1133.[CrossRef]
7. Humphreys CP,, Franks PJ,, Rees M,, Bidartondo MI,, Leake JR,, Beerling DJ . 2010. Mutualistic mycorrhiza-like symbiosis in the most ancient group of land plants. Nat Commun 1 : 103.[CrossRef]
8. Delaux PM,, Radhakrishnan GV,, Jayaraman D,, Cheema J,, Malbreil M,, Volkening JD,, Sekimoto H,, Nishiyama T,, Melkonian M,, Pokorny L,, Rothfels CJ,, Sederoff HW,, Stevenson DW,, Surek B,, Zhang Y,, Sussman MR,, Dunand C,, Morris RJ,, Roux C,, Wong GK,, Oldroyd GE,, Ané JM . 2015. Algal ancestor of land plants was preadapted for symbiosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 112 : 13390– 13395.[CrossRef]
9. Redman RS,, Sheehan KB,, Stout RG,, Rodriguez RJ,, Henson JM . 2002. Thermotolerance generated by plant/fungal symbiosis. Science 298 : 1581.[CrossRef]
10. Paszkowski U . 2006. Mutualism and parasitism: the yin and yang of plant symbioses. Curr Opin Plant Biol 9 : 364– 370.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
11. Rodriguez R,, Redman R . 2008. More than 400 million years of evolution and some plants still can’t make it on their own: plant stress tolerance via fungal symbiosis. J Exp Bot 59 : 1109– 1114.[CrossRef]
12. Mandyam KG,, Jumpponen A . 2015. Mutualism-parasitism paradigm synthesized from results of root-endophyte models. Front Microbiol 5 : 776.[CrossRef]
13. Dickman MB,, de Figueiredo P . 2011. Comparative pathobiology of fungal pathogens of plants and animals. PLoS Pathog 7 : e1002324.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
14. Sharon A,, Shlezinger N . 2013. Fungi infecting plants and animals: killers, non-killers, and cell death. PLoS Pathog 9 : e1003517.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
15. Perovic-Ottstadt S,, Adell T,, Proksch P,, Wiens M,, Korzhev M,, Gamulin V,, Muller IM,, Muller WE . 2004. A (1-->3)-beta-D-glucan recognition protein from the sponge Suberites domuncula. Mediated activation of fibrinogen-like protein and epidermal growth factor gene expression. Eur J Biochem 271 : 1924– 1937.[PubMed]
16. Stokes BA,, Yadav S,, Shokal U,, Smith LC,, Eleftherianos I . 2015. Bacterial and fungal pattern recognition receptors in homologous innate signaling pathways of insects and mammals. Front Microbiol 6 : 19.[CrossRef]
17. Ortiz-Urquiza A,, Luo Z,, Keyhani NO . 2015. Improving mycoinsecticides for insect biological control. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 99 : 1057– 1068.[CrossRef]
18. Shang Y,, Feng P,, Wang C . 2015. Fungi that infect insects: altering host behavior and beyond. PLoS Pathog 11 : e1005037.[CrossRef]
19. Yanong RP . 2003. Fungal diseases of fish. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 6 : 377– 400.[CrossRef]
20. Bagy MM,, Hemida SK,, Mahmoud UM . 1993. Terrestrial fungi inhabiting certain species of Nile fishes in Egypt. Zentralbl Mikrobiol 148 : 289– 297.[PubMed]
21. Fernando N,, Hui SW,, Tsang CC,, Leung SY,, Ngan AH,, Leung RW,, Groff JM,, Lau SK,, Woo PC . 2015. Fatal Fusarium solani species complex infections in elasmobranchs: the first case report for black spotted stingray ( Taeniura melanopsila) and a literature review. Mycoses 58 : 422– 431.[CrossRef]
22. Liu YJ,, Hodson MC,, Hall BD . 2006. Loss of the flagellum happened only once in the fungal lineage: phylogenetic structure of kingdom Fungi inferred from RNA polymerase II subunit genes. BMC Evol Biol 6 : 74.[CrossRef]
23. James TY,, Letcher PM,, Longcore JE,, Mozley-Standridge SE,, Porter D,, Powell MJ,, Griffith GW,, Vilgalys R . 2006. A molecular phylogeny of the flagellated fungi (Chytridiomycota) and description of a new phylum (Blastocladiomycota). Mycologia 98 : 860– 871.[CrossRef]
24. Bellard C,, Genovesi P,, Jeschke JM . 2016. Global patterns in threats to vertebrates by biological invasions. Proc Biol Sci 283 : 20152454.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
25. Cragg SM,, Beckham GT,, Bruce NC,, Bugg TD,, Distel DL,, Dupree P,, Etxabe AG,, Goodell BS,, Jellison J,, McGeehan JE,, McQueen-Mason SJ,, Schnorr K,, Walton PH,, Watts JE,, Zimmer M . 2015. Lignocellulose degradation mechanisms across the tree of life. Curr Opin Chem Biol 29 : 108– 119.[CrossRef]
26. Bergman A,, Casadevall A . 2010. Mammalian endothermy optimally restricts fungi and metabolic costs. MBio 1 : e00212-10.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
27. Garcia-Solache MA,, Casadevall A . 2010. Global warming will bring new fungal diseases for mammals. MBio 1 : e00061-10.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
28. Casadevall A . 2012. Fungi and the rise of mammals. PLoS Pathog 8 : e1002808.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
29. Inglis D,, Johnson DL,, Goettel MS . 1996. Effects of temperature on thermoregulation on mycosis by Beauveria bassiana in grasshoppers. Biol Control 7 : 131– 139.[CrossRef]
30. Elliot SL,, Blanford S,, Thomas MB . 2002. Host-pathogen interactions in a varying environment: temperature, behavioural fever and fitness. Proc Biol Sci 269 : 1599– 1607.[CrossRef]
31. Cannom RR,, French SW,, Johnston D,, Edwards JE Jr,, Filler SG . 2002. Candida albicans stimulates local expression of leukocyte adhesion molecules and cytokines in vivo . J Infect Dis 186 : 389– 396.[CrossRef]
32. Liu Y,, Shetty AC,, Schwartz JA,, Bradford LL,, Xu W,, Phan QT,, Kumari P,, Mahurkar A,, Mitchell AP,, Ravel J,, Fraser CM,, Filler SG,, Bruno VM . 2015. New signaling pathways govern the host response to C. albicans infection in various niches. Genome Res 25 : 679– 689.[CrossRef]
33. Pizzo PA,, Robichaud KJ,, Gill FA,, Witebsky FG . 1982. Empiric antibiotic and antifungal therapy for cancer patients with prolonged fever and granulocytopenia. Am J Med 72 : 101– 111.[CrossRef]
34. Casadevall A . 2016. Thermal restriction as an antimicrobial function of fever. PLoS Pathog 12 : e1005577.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
35. de Oliveira HC,, da Silva JF,, Scorzoni L,, Marcos CM,, Rossi SA,, de Paula E Silva AC,, Assato PA,, da Silva RA,, Fusco-Almeida AM,, Mendes-Giannini MJ . 2015. Importance of adhesins in virulence of Paracoccidioides spp. Front Microbiol 6 : 303.
36. Bass D,, Howe A,, Brown N,, Barton H,, Demidova M,, Michelle H,, Li L,, Sanders H,, Watkinson SC,, Willcock S,, Richards TA . 2007. Yeast forms dominate fungal diversity in the deep oceans. Proc Biol Sci 274 : 3069– 3077.[CrossRef]
37. Stefanini I,, Dapporto L,, Berná L,, Polsinelli M,, Turillazzi S,, Cavalieri D . 2016. Social wasps are a Saccharomyces mating nest. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 113 : 2247– 2251.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
38. Sukroongreung S,, Kitiniyom K,, Nilakul C,, Tantimavanich S . 1998. Pathogenicity of basidiospores of Filobasidiella neoformans var. neoformans . Med Mycol 36 : 419– 424.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
39. Lücking R,, Huhndorf S,, Pfister DH,, Plata ER,, Lumbsch HT . 2009. Fungi evolved right on track. Mycologia 101 : 810– 822.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
40. Redecker D,, Kodner R,, Graham LE . 2000. Glomalean fungi from the Ordovician. Science 289 : 1920– 1921.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
41. Nehls U . 2008. Mastering ectomycorrhizal symbiosis: the impact of carbohydrates. J Exp Bot 59 : 1097– 1108.[PubMed] [CrossRef]
42. Hoyer LL,, Green CB,, Oh SH,, Zhao X . 2008. Discovering the secrets of the Candida albicans agglutinin-like sequence (ALS) gene family: a sticky pursuit. Med Mycol 46 : 1– 15.[CrossRef]
43. Sudbery PE . 2011. Growth of Candida albicans hyphae. Nat Rev Microbiol 9 : 737– 748.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
44. Brand A . 2012. Hyphal growth in human fungal pathogens and its role in virulence. Int J Microbiol 2012 : 517529.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
45. de Groot PW,, Bader O,, de Boer AD,, Weig M,, Chauhan N . 2013. Adhesins in human fungal pathogens: glue with plenty of stick. Eukaryot Cell 12 : 470– 481.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
46. Neilson JB,, Ivey MH,, Bulmer GS . 1978. Cryptococcus neoformans: pseudohyphal forms surviving culture with Acanthamoeba polyphaga . Infect Immun 20 : 262– 266.[PubMed]
47. Allen PG,, Dawidowicz EA . 1990. Phagocytosis in Acanthamoeba. I. A mannose receptor is responsible for the binding and phagocytosis of yeast. J Cell Physiol 145 : 508– 513.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
48. Dzik JM . 2010. The ancestry and cumulative evolution of immune reactions. Acta Biochim Pol 57 : 443– 466.[PubMed]
49. Buchmann K . 2014. Evolution of innate immunity: clues from invertebrates via fish to mammals. Front Immunol 5 : 459.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
50. Lo HJ,, Köhler JR,, DiDomenico B,, Loebenberg D,, Cacciapuoti A,, Fink GR . 1997. Nonfilamentous C. albicans mutants are avirulent. Cell 90 : 939– 949.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
51. Krysan DJ,, Sutterwala FS,, Wellington M . 2014. Catching fire: Candida albicans, macrophages, and pyroptosis. PLoS Pathog 10 : e1004139.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
52. Wellington M,, Koselny K,, Sutterwala FS,, Krysan DJ . 2014. Candida albicans triggers NLRP3-mediated pyroptosis in macrophages. Eukaryot Cell 13 : 329– 340.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
53. O’Meara TR,, Veri AO,, Ketela T,, Jiang B,, Roemer T,, Cowen LE . 2015. Global analysis of fungal morphology exposes mechanisms of host cell escape. Nat Commun 6 : 6741.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
54. Brennan MA,, Cookson BT . 2000. Salmonella induces macrophage death by caspase-1-dependent necrosis. Mol Microbiol 38 : 31– 40.[CrossRef]
55. Cookson BT,, Brennan MA . 2001. Pro-inflammatory programmed cell death. Trends Microbiol 9 : 113– 114.[CrossRef]
56. Raper JR,, Miles PG . 1958. The genetics of Schizophyllum commune . Genetics 43 : 530– 546.[PubMed]
57. Burge HA . 2002. An update on pollen and fungal spore aerobiology. J Allergy Clin Immunol 110 : 544– 552.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
58. Griffin DW . 2004. Terrestrial microorganisms at an altitude of 20,000 m in Earth’s atmosphere. Aerobiologia 20 : 135– 140.[CrossRef]
59. Sudbery P,, Gow N,, Berman J . 2004. The distinct morphogenic states of Candida albicans . Trends Microbiol 12 : 317– 324.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
60. Hube B,, Sanglard D,, Odds FC,, Hess D,, Monod M,, Schäfer W,, Brown AJ,, Gow NA . 1997. Disruption of each of the secreted aspartyl proteinase genes SAP1, SAP2, and SAP3 of Candida albicans attenuates virulence. Infect Immun 65 : 3529– 3538.[PubMed]
61. Sanglard D,, Hube B,, Monod M,, Odds FC,, Gow NA . 1997. A triple deletion of the secreted aspartyl proteinase genes SAP4, SAP5, and SAP6 of Candida albicans causes attenuated virulence. Infect Immun 65 : 3539– 3546.[PubMed]
62. Leidich SD,, Ibrahim AS,, Fu Y,, Koul A,, Jessup C,, Vitullo J,, Fonzi W,, Mirbod F,, Nakashima S,, Nozawa Y,, Ghannoum MA . 1998. Cloning and disruption of caPLB1, a phospholipase B gene involved in the pathogenicity of Candida albicans . J Biol Chem 273 : 26078– 26086.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
63. Theiss S,, Ishdorj G,, Brenot A,, Kretschmar M,, Lan CY,, Nichterlein T,, Hacker J,, Nigam S,, Agabian N,, Köhler GA . 2006. Inactivation of the phospholipase B gene PLB5 in wild-type Candida albicans reduces cell-associated phospholipase A2 activity and attenuates virulence. Int J Med Microbiol 296 : 405– 420.[CrossRef]
64. Fu Y,, Ibrahim AS,, Fonzi W,, Zhou X,, Ramos CF,, Ghannoum MA . 1997. Cloning and characterization of a gene (LIP1) which encodes a lipase from the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans . Microbiology 143 : 331– 340.[CrossRef]
65. Hube B,, Stehr F,, Bossenz M,, Mazur A,, Kretschmar M,, Schäfer W . 2000. Secreted lipases of Candida albicans: cloning, characterisation and expression analysis of a new gene family with at least ten members. Arch Microbiol 174 : 362– 374.[CrossRef]
66. Gácser A,, Stehr F,, Kröger C,, Kredics L,, Schäfer W,, Nosanchuk JD . 2007. Lipase 8 affects the pathogenesis of Candida albicans . Infect Immun 75 : 4710– 4718.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
67. Okeke CN,, Müller J . 1991. Production of extracellular collagenolytic proteinases by Histoplasma capsulatum var. duboisii and Histoplasma capsulatum var. capsulatum in the yeast phase. Mycoses 34 : 453– 460.[CrossRef]
68. Muotoe-Okafor FA,, Gugnani HC,, Obidoa OO . 1996. Extracellular proteolytic enzyme activity of Histoplasma capsulatum var. duboisii . Mycopathologia 133 : 129– 133.[CrossRef]
69. Barata RA,, Andrade MH,, Rodrigues RD,, Castro IM . 2002. Purification and characterization of an extracellular trypsin-like protease of Fusarium oxysporum var. lini . J Biosci Bioeng 94 : 304– 308.[CrossRef]
70. Kogan TV,, Jadoun J,, Mittelman L,, Hirschberg K,, Osherov N . 2004. Involvement of secreted Aspergillus fumigatus proteases in disruption of the actin fiber cytoskeleton and loss of focal adhesion sites in infected A549 lung pneumocytes. J Infect Dis 189 : 1965– 1973.[CrossRef]
71. Whiston E,, Taylor J . 2016. Comparative phylogenomics of pathogenic and nonpathogenic species. G3 (Bethesda) 6 : 235– 244.[PubMed]
72. Dagenais TR,, Keller NP . 2009. Pathogenesis of A spergillus fumigatus in invasive aspergillosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 22 : 447– 465.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
73. Hood MI,, Skaar EP . 2012. Nutritional immunity: transition metals at the pathogen-host interface. Nat Rev Microbiol 10 : 525– 537.[CrossRef]
74. Boelaert JR,, de Locht M,, Van Cutsem J,, Kerrels V,, Cantinieaux B,, Verdonck A,, Van Landuyt HW,, Schneider YJ . 1993. Mucormycosis during deferoxamine therapy is a siderophore-mediated infection. In vitro and in vivo animal studies. J Clin Invest 91 : 1979– 1986.[CrossRef]
75. Ibrahim AS,, Edwards JE Jr,, Fu Y,, Spellberg B . 2006. Deferiprone iron chelation as a novel therapy for experimental mucormycosis. J Antimicrob Chemother 58 : 1070– 1073.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
76. Noble SM . 2013. Candida albicans specializations for iron homeostasis: from commensalism to virulence. Curr Opin Microbiol 16 : 708– 715.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
77. Kronstad JW,, Hu G,, Jung WH . 2013. An encapsulation of iron homeostasis and virulence in Cryptococcus neoformans . Trends Microbiol 21 : 457– 465.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
78. Ding C,, Festa RA,, Sun TS,, Wang ZY . 2014. Iron and copper as virulence modulators in human fungal pathogens. Mol Microbiol 93 : 10– 23.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
79. Hwang LH,, Mayfield JA,, Rine J,, Sil A . 2008. Histoplasma requires SID1, a member of an iron-regulated siderophore gene cluster, for host colonization. PLoS Pathog 4 : e1000044.[CrossRef]
80. Kornitzer D . 2009. Fungal mechanisms for host iron acquisition. Curr Opin Microbiol 12 : 377– 383.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
81. Kuznets G,, Vigonsky E,, Weissman Z,, Lalli D,, Gildor T,, Kauffman SJ,, Turano P,, Becker J,, Lewinson O,, Kornitzer D . 2014. A relay network of extracellular heme-binding proteins drives C. albicans iron acquisition from hemoglobin. PLoS Pathog 10 : e1004407.[CrossRef]
82. Bailão EF,, Parente JA,, Pigosso LL,, de Castro KP,, Fonseca FL,, Silva-Bailão MG,, Báo SN,, Bailão AM,, Rodrigues ML,, Hernandez O,, McEwen JG,, Soares CM . 2014. Hemoglobin uptake by Paracoccidioides spp. is receptor-mediated. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 8 : e2856.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
83. Schrettl M,, Bignell E,, Kragl C,, Joechl C,, Rogers T,, Arst HN Jr,, Haynes K,, Haas H . 2004. Siderophore biosynthesis but not reductive iron assimilation is essential for Aspergillus fumigatus virulence. J Exp Med 200 : 1213– 1219.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
84. Windus DW,, Stokes TJ,, Julian BA,, Fenves AZ . 1987. Fatal Rhizopus infections in hemodialysis patients receiving deferoxamine. Ann Intern Med 107 : 678– 680.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
85. Waterman SR,, Hacham M,, Hu G,, Zhu X,, Park YD,, Shin S,, Panepinto J,, Valyi-Nagy T,, Beam C,, Husain S,, Singh N,, Williamson PR . 2007. Role of a CUF1/CTR4 copper regulatory axis in the virulence of Cryptococcus neoformans . J Clin Invest 117 : 794– 802.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
86. Ding C,, Yin J,, Tovar EM,, Fitzpatrick DA,, Higgins DG,, Thiele DJ . 2011. The copper regulon of the human fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans H99. Mol Microbiol 81 : 1560– 1576.[CrossRef]
87. Gleason JE,, Li CX,, Odeh HM,, Culotta VC . 2014. Species-specific activation of Cu/Zn SOD by its CCS copper chaperone in the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans . J Biol Inorg Chem 19 : 595– 603.[PubMed]
88. Gleason JE,, Galaleldeen A,, Peterson RL,, Taylor AB,, Holloway SP,, Waninger-Saroni J,, Cormack BP,, Cabelli DE,, Hart PJ,, Culotta VC . 2014. Candida albicans SOD5 represents the prototype of an unprecedented class of Cu-only superoxide dismutases required for pathogen defense. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 111 : 5866– 5871.[CrossRef]
89. de Oliveira HC,, da Silva JF,, Matsumoto MT,, Marcos CM,, Peres da Silva R,, Moraes da Silva RA,, Labate MT,, Labate CA,, Fusco Almeida AM,, Mendes Giannini MJ . 2014. Alterations of protein expression in conditions of copper-deprivation for Paracoccidioides lutzii in the presence of extracellular matrix components. BMC Microbiol 14 : 302.[CrossRef]
90. White C,, Lee J,, Kambe T,, Fritsche K,, Petris MJ . 2009. A role for the ATP7A copper-transporting ATPase in macrophage bactericidal activity. J Biol Chem 284 : 33949– 33956.[CrossRef]
91. Ding C,, Festa RA,, Chen YL,, Espart A,, Palacios Ò,, Espín J,, Capdevila M,, Atrian S,, Heitman J,, Thiele DJ . 2013. Cryptococcus neoformans copper detoxification machinery is critical for fungal virulence. Cell Host Microbe 13 : 265– 276.[CrossRef]
92. Sun TS,, Ju X,, Gao HL,, Wang T,, Thiele DJ,, Li JY,, Wang ZY,, Ding C . 2014. Reciprocal functions of Cryptococcus neoformans copper homeostasis machinery during pulmonary infection and meningoencephalitis. Nat Commun 5 : 5550.[CrossRef]
93. Li CX,, Gleason JE,, Zhang SX,, Bruno VM,, Cormack BP,, Culotta VC . 2015. Candida albicans adapts to host copper during infection by swapping metal cofactors for superoxide dismutase. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 112 : E5336– E5342.[CrossRef]
94. Davies B,, Chattings LS,, Edwards SW . 1991. Superoxide generation during phagocytosis by Acanthamoeba castellanii: similarities to the respiratory burst of immune phagocytes. J Gen Microbiol 137 : 705– 710.[CrossRef]
95. Rohde JR,, Cardenas ME . 2004. Nutrient signaling through TOR kinases controls gene expression and cellular differentiation in fungi. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 279 : 53– 72.[CrossRef]
96. Cramer RA Jr,, Perfect BZ,, Pinchai N,, Park S,, Perlin DS,, Asfaw YG,, Heitman J,, Perfect JR,, Steinbach WJ . 2008. Calcineurin target CrzA regulates conidial germination, hyphal growth, and pathogenesis of Aspergillus fumigatus . Eukaryot Cell 7 : 1085– 1097.[CrossRef]
97. Kumamoto CA . 2008. Molecular mechanisms of mechanosensing and their roles in fungal contact sensing. Nat Rev Microbiol 6 : 667– 673.[CrossRef]
98. Bastidas RJ,, Heitman J . 2009. Trimorphic stepping stones pave the way to fungal virulence. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106 : 351– 352.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
99. Herrero de Dios C,, Román E,, Monge RA,, Pla J . 2010. The role of MAPK signal transduction pathways in the response to oxidative stress in the fungal pathogen Candida albicans: implications in virulence. Curr Protein Pept Sci 11 : 693– 703.[CrossRef]
100. Ernst JF,, Pla J . 2011. Signaling the glycoshield: maintenance of the Candida albicans cell wall. Int J Med Microbiol 301 : 378– 383.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
101. Hogan DA,, Muhlschlegel FA . 2011. Candida albicans developmental regulation: adenylyl cyclase as a coincidence detector of parallel signals. Curr Opin Microbiol 14 : 682– 686.[CrossRef]
102. Argimón S,, Fanning S,, Blankenship JR,, Mitchell AP . 2011. Interaction between the Candida albicans high-osmolarity glycerol (HOG) pathway and the response to human beta-defensins 2 and 3. Eukaryot Cell 10 : 272– 275.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
103. Shapiro RS,, Ryan O,, Boone C,, Cowen LE . 2012. Regulatory circuitry governing morphogenesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida albicans . Cell Cycle 11 : 4294– 4295.[CrossRef]
104. Chen YL,, Lehman VN,, Lewit Y,, Averette AF,, Heitman J . 2013. Calcineurin governs thermotolerance and virulence of Cryptococcus gattii . G3 (Bethesda) 3 : 527– 539.[CrossRef]
105. Grahl N,, Demers EG,, Lindsay AK,, Harty CE,, Willger SD,, Piispanen AE,, Hogan DA . 2015. Mitochondrial activity and Cyr1 are key regulators of Ras1 activation of C. albicans virulence pathways. PLoS Pathog 11 : e1005133.[CrossRef]
106. Swidergall M,, van Wijlick L,, Ernst JF . 2015. Signaling domains of mucin Msb2 in Candida albicans . Eukaryot Cell 14 : 359– 370.[CrossRef]
107. Kwon-Chung KJ . 2012. Taxonomy of fungi causing mucormycosis and entomophthoramycosis (zygomycosis) and nomenclature of the disease:molecular mycologic perspectives. Clin Infect Dis 54( Suppl 1) : S8– S15.[CrossRef]
108. Prabhu RM,, Patel R . 2004. Mucormycosis and entomophthoramycosis: a review of the clinical manifestations, diagnosis and treatment. Clin Microbiol Infect 10( Suppl 1) : 31– 47.[CrossRef]
109. Echetebu CO,, Ononogbu IC . 1982. Extracellular lipase and proteinase of Basidiobolus haptosporus: possible role in subcutaneous mycosis. Mycopathologia 80 : 171– 177.[CrossRef]
110. Okafor JI,, Gugnani HC,, Testratke D,, Yangoo BG . 1987. Extracellular enzyme activities by Basidiobolus and Conidiobolus isolates on solid media. Mykosen 30 : 404– 407.[CrossRef]
111. Okafor JI,, Gugnani HC . 1990. Lipase activity of Basidiobolus and Conidiobolus species. Mycoses 33 : 81– 85.[PubMed]
112. Okafor JI . 1994. Purification and characterization of protease enzymes of Basidiobolus and Conidiobolus species. Mycoses 37 : 265– 269.[CrossRef]
113. Comerio RM,, Andorno AV,, Botto EN . 2008. [ Conidiobolus coronatus isolation from a pest aphids of chives ( Allium schoenoprasum L.)]. Rev Iberoam Micol 25 : 193– 195. (In Spanish.)
114. Gugnani HC . 1992. Entomophthoromycosis due to Conidiobolus . Eur J Epidemiol 8 : 391– 396.[CrossRef]
115. Isa-Isa R,, Arenas R,, Fernández RF,, Isa M . 2012. Rhinofacial conidiobolomycosis (entomophthoramycosis). Clin Dermatol 30 : 409– 412.[CrossRef]
116. Bittencourt AL,, Marback R,, Nossa LM . 2006. Mucocutaneous entomophthoramycosis acquired by conjunctival inoculation of the fungus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 75 : 936– 938.[PubMed]
117. Ribes JA,, Vanover-Sams CL,, Baker DJ . 2000. Zygomycetes in human disease. Clin Microbiol Rev 13 : 236– 301.[CrossRef]
118. Raveenthiran V,, Mangayarkarasi V,, Kousalya M,, Viswanathan P,, Dhanalakshmi M,, Anandi V . 2015. Subcutaneous entomophthoromycosis mimicking soft-tissue sarcoma in children. J Pediatr Surg 50 : 1150– 1155.[CrossRef]
119. Zavasky DM,, Samowitz W,, Loftus T,, Segal H,, Carroll K . 1999. Gastrointestinal zygomycotic infection caused by Basidiobolus ranarum: case report and review. Clin Infect Dis 28 : 1244– 1248.[CrossRef]
120. Vikram HR,, Smilack JD,, Leighton JA,, Crowell MD,, De Petris G . 2012. Emergence of gastrointestinal basidiobolomycosis in the United States, with a review of worldwide cases. Clin Infect Dis 54 : 1685– 1691.[CrossRef]
121. El-Shabrawi MH,, Arnaout H,, Madkour L,, Kamal NM . 2014. Entomophthoromycosis: a challenging emerging disease. Mycoses 57( Suppl 3) : 132– 137.[CrossRef]
122. Queiroz-Telles F . 2015. Chromoblastomycosis: a neglected tropical disease. Rev Inst Med Trop São Paulo 57( Suppl 19) : 46– 50.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
123. Cunha MM,, Franzen AJ,, Seabra SH,, Herbst MH,, Vugman NV,, Borba LP,, de Souza W,, Rozental S . 2010. Melanin in Fonsecaea pedrosoi: a trap for oxidative radicals. BMC Microbiol 10 : 80.[CrossRef]
124. Queiroz-Telles F,, Nucci M,, Colombo AL,, Tobón A,, Restrepo A . 2011. Mycoses of implantation in Latin America: an overview of epidemiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis and treatment. Med Mycol 49 : 225– 236.[CrossRef]
125. Fahal AH,, Hassan MA . 1992. Mycetoma. Br J Surg 79 : 1138– 1141.[CrossRef]
126. van de Sande WW . 2012. Phylogenetic analysis of the complete mitochondrial genome of Madurella mycetomatis confirms its taxonomic position within the order Sordariales. PLoS One 7 : e38654.[CrossRef]
127. de Hoog GS,, Ahmed SA,, Najafzadeh MJ,, Sutton DA,, Keisari MS,, Fahal AH,, Eberhardt U,, Verkleij GJ,, Xin L,, Stielow B,, van de Sande WW . 2013. Phylogenetic findings suggest possible new habitat and routes of infection of human eumyctoma. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 7 : e2229.[CrossRef]
128. Mhmoud NA,, Fahal AH,, van de Sande WW . 2013. The association between the interleukin-10 cytokine and CC chemokine ligand 5 polymorphisms and mycetoma granuloma formation. Med Mycol 51 : 527– 533.[CrossRef]
129. Geneugelijk K,, Kloezen W,, Fahal AH,, van de Sande WW . 2014. Active matrix metalloprotease-9 is associated with the collagen capsule surrounding the Madurella mycetomatis grain in mycetoma. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 8 : e2754.[CrossRef]
130. Verwer PE,, Notenboom CC,, Eadie K,, Fahal AH,, Verbrugh HA,, van de Sande WW . 2015. A polymorphism in the Chitotriosidase gene associated with risk of mycetoma due to Madurella mycetomatis mycetoma: a retrospective study. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 9 : e0004061.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
131. Ahmed SA,, Kloezen W,, Duncanson F,, Zijlstra EE,, de Hoog GS,, Fahal AH,, van de Sande WW . 2014. Madurella mycetomatis is highly susceptible to ravuconazole. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 8 : e2942.[CrossRef]
132. Untereiner WA,, Scott JA,, Naveau FA,, Sigler L,, Bachewich J,, Angus A . 2004. The Ajellomycetaceae, a new family of vertebrate-associated Onygenales. Mycologia 96 : 812– 821.[CrossRef]
133. Bagagli E,, Theodoro RC,, Bosco SM,, McEwen JG . 2008. Paracoccidioides brasiliensis: phylogenetic and ecological aspects. Mycopathologia 165 : 197– 207.[CrossRef]
134. Lacy GH,, Swatek FE . 1974. Soil ecology of Coccidioides immitis at Amerindian middens in California. Appl Microbiol 27 : 379– 388.[PubMed]
135. Taylor ML,, Chávez-Tapia CB,, Vargas-Yañez R,, Rodríguez-Arellanes G,, Peña-Sandoval GR,, Toriello C,, Pérez A,, Reyes-Montes MR . 1999. Environmental conditions favoring bat infection with Histoplasma capsulatum in Mexican shelters. Am J Trop Med Hyg 61 : 914– 919.[PubMed]
136. Vidal MS,, de Melo NT,, Garcia NM,, Del Negro GM,, de Assis CM,, Heins-Vaccari EM,, Naiff RD,, Mendes RP,, Lacaz CS . 1995. Paracoccidioides brasiliensis. A mycologic and immunochemical study of a sample isolated from an armadillo (Dasipus novencinctus). Rev Inst Med Trop São Paulo 37 : 43– 49.[CrossRef]
137. Corredor GG,, Castaño JH,, Peralta LA,, Díez S,, Arango M,, McEwen J,, Restrepo A . 1999. Isolation of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis from the nine-banded armadillo Dasypus novemcinctus, in an endemic area for paracoccidioidomycosis in Colombia. Rev Iberoam Micol 16 : 216– 220.[PubMed]
138. Queiroz-Telles F,, Escuissato DL . 2011. Pulmonary paracoccidioidomycosis. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 32 : 764– 774.[CrossRef]
139. Marques SA . 2012. Paracoccidioidomycosis. Clin Dermatol 30 : 610– 615.[CrossRef]
140. Bradsher RW,, Chapman SW,, Pappas PG . 2003. Blastomycosis. Infect Dis Clin North Am 17 : 21– 40, vii.[CrossRef]
141. Kauffman CA . 2007. Histoplasmosis: a clinical and laboratory update. Clin Microbiol Rev 20 : 115– 132.[CrossRef]
142. Nguyen VQ,, Sil A . 2008. Temperature-induced switch to the pathogenic yeast form of Histoplasma capsulatum requires Ryp1, a conserved transcriptional regulator. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105 : 4880– 4885.[CrossRef]
143. Edwards JA,, Chen C,, Kemski MM,, Hu J,, Mitchell TK,, Rappleye CA . 2013. Histoplasma yeast and mycelial transcriptomes reveal pathogenic-phase and lineage-specific gene expression profiles. BMC Genomics 14 : 695.[CrossRef]
144. Inglis DO,, Voorhies M,, Hocking Murray DR,, Sil A . 2013. Comparative transcriptomics of infectious spores from the fungal pathogen Histoplasma capsulatum reveals a core set of transcripts that specify infectious and pathogenic states. Eukaryot Cell 12 : 828– 852.[CrossRef]
145. Nemecek JC,, Wüthrich M,, Klein BS . 2006. Global control of dimorphism and virulence in fungi. Science 312 : 583– 588.[CrossRef]
146. Webster RH,, Sil A . 2008. Conserved factors Ryp2 and Ryp3 control cell morphology and infectious spore formation in the fungal pathogen Histoplasma capsulatum . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105 : 14573– 14578.[CrossRef]
147. Cain CW,, Lohse MB,, Homann OR,, Sil A,, Johnson AD . 2012. A conserved transcriptional regulator governs fungal morphology in widely diverged species. Genetics 190 : 511– 521.[CrossRef]
148. Beyhan S,, Gutierrez M,, Voorhies M,, Sil A . 2013. A temperature-responsive network links cell shape and virulence traits in a primary fungal pathogen. PLoS Biol 11 : e1001614.[CrossRef]
149. Gilmore SA,, Voorhies M,, Gebhart D,, Sil A . 2015. Genome-wide reprogramming of transcript architecture by temperature specifies the developmental states of the human pathogen Histoplasma . PLoS Genet 11 : e1005395.[CrossRef]
150. Quist EM,, Belcher C,, Levine G,, Johnson M,, Heatley JJ,, Kiupel M,, Giri D . 2011. Disseminated histoplasmosis with concurrent oral candidiasis in an Eclectus parrot ( Eclectus roratus). Avian Pathol 40 : 207– 211.[CrossRef]
151. Bauder B,, Kübber-Heiss A,, Steineck T,, Kuttin ES,, Kaufman L . 2000. Granulomatous skin lesions due to histoplasmosis in a badger ( Meles meles) in Austria. Med Mycol 38 : 249– 253.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
152. Brömel C,, Sykes JE . 2005. Histoplasmosis in dogs and cats. Clin Tech Small Anim Pract 20 : 227– 232.[CrossRef]
153. Aulakh HK,, Aulakh KS,, Troy GC . 2012. Feline histoplasmosis: a retrospective study of 22 cases (1986-2009). J Am Anim Hosp Assoc 48 : 182– 187.[CrossRef]
154. Johnson L,, Gaab EM,, Sanchez J,, Bui PQ,, Nobile CJ,, Hoyer KK,, Peterson MW,, Ojcius DM . 2014. Valley fever: danger lurking in a dust cloud. Microbes Infect 16 : 591– 600.[CrossRef]
155. Fisher MC,, Koenig GL,, White TJ,, Taylor JW . 2002. Molecular and phenotypic description of Coccidioides posadasii sp. nov., previously recognized as the non-California population of Coccidioides immitis . Mycologia 94 : 73– 84.[CrossRef]
156. Fraser JA,, Stajich JE,, Tarcha EJ,, Cole GT,, Inglis DO,, Sil A,, Heitman J . 2007. Evolution of the mating type locus: insights gained from the dimorphic primary fungal pathogens Histoplasma capsulatum, Coccidioides immitis, and Coccidioides posadasii . Eukaryot Cell 6 : 622– 629.[CrossRef]
157. Ajello L . 1967. Comparative ecology of respiratory mycotic disease agents. Bacteriol Rev 31 : 6– 24.[PubMed]
158. Ríos-Olivares EO . 1979. 1st human case of coccidioidomycosis in Nicaragua. Rev Latinoam Microbiol 21 : 215– 218. (In Spanish.)[PubMed]
159. Wanke B,, dos Santos Lazera M,, Monteiro PC,, Lima FC,, Leal MJ,, Ferreira Filho PL,, Kaufman L,, Pinner RW,, Ajello L . 1999. Investigation of an outbreak of endemic coccidioidomycosis in Brazil’s northeastern state of Piauí with a review of the occurrence and distribution of Coccidioides immitis in three other Brazilian states. Mycopathologia 148 : 57– 67.[CrossRef]
160. Campins H . 1970. Coccidioidomycosis in South America. A review of its epidemiology and geographic distribution. Mycopathol Mycol Appl 41 : 25– 34.[CrossRef]
161. Hector RF,, Laniado-Laborin R . 2005. Coccidioidomycosis: a fungal disease of the Americas. PLoS Med 2 : e2.[CrossRef]
162. Posadas A . 1892. Un nuevo caso de micosis fungoidea con posrospemias. An Circulo Med Argentino 15 : 585– 597.
163. Nguyen C,, Barker BM,, Hoover S,, Nix DE,, Ampel NM,, Frelinger JA,, Orbach MJ,, Galgiani JN . 2013. Recent advances in our understanding of the environmental, epidemiological, immunological, and clinical dimensions of coccidioidomycosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 26 : 505– 525.[CrossRef]
164. Greene D,, Koenig G,, Fisher M,, Taylor J . 2000. Soil isolation and molecular identification of Coccidioides immitis . Mycologia 92 : 406– 410.[CrossRef]
165. Sharpton TJ,, Stajich JE,, Rounsley SD,, Gardner MJ,, Wortman JR,, Jordar VS,, Maiti R,, Kodira CD,, Neafsey DE,, Zeng Q,, Hung CY,, McMahan C,, Muszewska A,, Grynberg M,, Mandel MA,, Kellner EM,, Barker BM,, Galgiani JN,, Orbach MJ,, Kirkland TN,, Cole GT,, Henn MR,, Birren BW,, Taylor JW . 2009. Comparative genomic analyses of the human fungal pathogens Coccidioides and their relatives. Genome Res 19 : 1722– 1731.[CrossRef]
166. Whiston E,, Taylor JW . 2014. Genomics in Coccidioides: insights into evolution, ecology, and pathogenesis. Med Mycol 52 : 149– 155.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
167. Hector RF,, Rutherford GW,, Tsang CA,, Erhart LM,, McCotter O,, Anderson SM,, Komatsu K,, Tabnak F,, Vugia DJ,, Yang Y,, Galgiani JN . 2011. The public health impact of coccidioidomycosis in Arizona and California. Int J Environ Res Public Health 8 : 1150– 1173.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
168. Smith CE . 1940. Epidemiology of acute coccidioidomycosis with erythema nodosum (“San Joaquin” or “valley fever”). Am J Public Health Nations Health 30 : 600– 611.[CrossRef]
169. Smith CE,, Beard RR . 1946. Varieties of coccidioidal infection in relation to the epidemiology and control of the diseases. Am J Public Health Nations Health 36 : 1394– 1402.[CrossRef]
170. Cox RA,, Magee DM . 2004. Coccidioidomycosis: host response and vaccine development. Clin Microbiol Rev 17 : 804– 839.[CrossRef]
171. Cole GT,, Hung CY,, Sanderson SD,, Hurtgen BJ,, Wüthrich M,, Klein BS,, Deepe GS,, Ostroff GR,, Levitz SM . 2013. Novel strategies to enhance vaccine immunity against coccidioidomycosis. PLoS Pathog 9 : e1003768.[CrossRef]
172. Fisher MC,, Koenig GL,, White TJ,, San-Blas G,, Negroni R,, Alvarez IG,, Wanke B,, Taylor JW . 2001. Biogeographic range expansion into South America by Coccidioides immitis mirrors New World patterns of human migration. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98 : 4558– 4562.[CrossRef]
173. Darling MI,, Donoghue HD . 2014. Insights from paleomicrobiology into the indigenous peoples of pre-colonial America: a review. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 109 : 131– 139.[CrossRef]
174. Cordeiro RA,, Roches de Castro e Silva KR,, Brilhante RS,, Moura FB,, Duarte NF,, Marques FJ,, Cordeiro RA,, Filho RE,, Bezerra de Araújo RW,, Bandeira TJ,, Rocha MF,, Sidrim JJ . 2012. Coccidioides posadasii infection in bats, Brazil. Emerg Infect Dis 18 : 668– 670.[CrossRef]
175. Lewis ER,, Bowers JR,, Barker BM . 2015. Dust devil: the life and times of the fungus that causes valley fever. PLoS Pathog 11 : e1004762.[CrossRef]
176. Neafsey DE,, Barker BM,, Sharpton TJ,, Stajich JE,, Park DJ,, Whiston E,, Hung CY,, McMahan C,, White J,, Sykes S,, Heiman D,, Young S,, Zeng Q,, Abouelleil A,, Aftuck L,, Bessette D,, Brown A,, FitzGerald M,, Lui A,, Macdonald JP,, Priest M,, Orbach MJ,, Galgiani JN,, Kirkland TN,, Cole GT,, Birren BW,, Henn MR,, Taylor JW,, Rounsley SD . 2010. Population genomic sequencing of Coccidioides fungi reveals recent hybridization and transposon control. Genome Res 20 : 938– 946.[CrossRef]
177. Wilken JA,, Sondermeyer G,, Shusterman D,, McNary J,, Vugia DJ,, McDowell A,, Borenstein P,, Gilliss D,, Ancock B,, Prudhomme J,, Gold D,, Windham GC,, Lee L,, Materna BL . 2015. Coccidioidomycosis among workers constructing solar power farms, California, USA, 2011-2014. Emerg Infect Dis 21 : 1997– 2005.[CrossRef]
178. Canteros CE,, Madariaga MJ,, Lee W,, Rivas MC,, Davel G,, Iachini R . 2010. Endemic fungal pathogens in a rural setting of Argentina: seroepidemiological study in dogs. Rev Iberoam Micol 27 : 14– 19. (In Spanish.)[CrossRef]
179. Duarte-Escalante E,, Zúñiga G,, Frías-De-León MG,, Canteros C,, Castañón-Olivares LR,, Reyes-Montes MR . 2013. AFLP analysis reveals high genetic diversity but low population structure in Coccidioides posadasii isolates from Mexico and Argentina. BMC Infect Dis 13 : 411.[CrossRef]
180. Fisher MC,, Koenig GL,, White TJ,, Taylor JW . 2000. Pathogenic clones versus environmentally driven population increase: analysis of an epidemic of the human fungal pathogen Coccidioides immitis . J Clin Microbiol 38 : 807– 813.[PubMed]
181. Tamerius JD,, Comrie AC . 2011. Coccidioidomycosis incidence in Arizona predicted by seasonal precipitation. PLoS One 6 : e21009.[CrossRef]
182. Vilela R,, Rosa PS,, Belone AF,, Taylor JW,, Diório SM,, Mendoza L . 2009. Molecular phylogeny of animal pathogen Lacazia loboi inferred from rDNA and DNA coding sequences. Mycol Res 113 : 851– 857.[CrossRef]
183. Theodoro RC,, Teixeira MM,, Felipe MS,, Paduan KS,, Ribolla PM,, San-Blas G,, Bagagli E . 2012. Genus Paracoccidioides: species recognition and biogeographic aspects. PLoS One 7 : e37694.[CrossRef]
184. Fortes MR,, Miot HA,, Kurokawa CS,, Marques ME,, Marques SA . 2011. Immunology of paracoccidioidomycosis. An Bras Dermatol 86 : 516– 524. (In English, Portuguese.)[CrossRef]
185. Marques SA . 2013. Paracoccidioidomycosis: epidemiological, clinical, diagnostic and treatment up-dating. An Bras Dermatol 88 : 700– 711.[CrossRef]
186. Prado M,, Silva MB,, Laurenti R,, Travassos LR,, Taborda CP . 2009. Mortality due to systemic mycoses as a primary cause of death or in association with AIDS in Brazil: a review from 1996 to 2006. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 104 : 513– 521.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
187. Colombo AL,, Tobón A,, Restrepo A,, Queiroz-Telles F,, Nucci M . 2011. Epidemiology of endemic systemic fungal infections in Latin America. Med Mycol 49 : 785– 798.
188. Shankar J,, Restrepo A,, Clemons KV,, Stevens DA . 2011. Hormones and the resistance of women to paracoccidioidomycosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 24 : 296– 313.[CrossRef]
189. Puccia R,, Juliano MA,, Juliano L,, Travassos LR,, Carmona AK . 1999. Detection of the basement membrane-degrading proteolytic activity of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis after SDS-PAGE using agarose overlays containing Abz-MKALTLQ-EDDnp. Braz J Med Biol Res 32 : 645– 649.[CrossRef]
190. Puccia R,, McEwen JG,, Cisalpino PS . 2008. Diversity in Paracoccidioides brasiliensis. The PbGP43 gene as a genetic marker. Mycopathologia 165 : 275– 287.[CrossRef]
191. Puccia R,, Vallejo MC,, Matsuo AL,, Longo LV . 2011. The Paracoccidioides cell wall: past and present layers toward understanding interaction with the host. Front Microbiol 2 : 257.[CrossRef]
192. Bagagli E,, Bosco SM,, Theodoro RC,, Franco M . 2006. Phylogenetic and evolutionary aspects of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis reveal a long coexistence with animal hosts that explain several biological features of the pathogen. Infect Genet Evol 6 : 344– 351.[CrossRef] [PubMed]
193. Richini-Pereira VB,, Bosco SM,, Theodoro RC,, Macoris SA,, Bagagli E . 2009. Molecular approaches for eco-epidemiological studies of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis . Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 104 : 636– 643.[CrossRef]
194. Foley NM,, Springer MS,, Teeling EC . 2016. Mammal madness: is the mammal tree of life not yet resolved? Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 371 : 20150140.[CrossRef]
195. Steinberger B,, Torsvik TH . 2008. Absolute plate motions and true polar wander in the absence of hotspot tracks. Nature 452 : 620– 623.[CrossRef]
196. de Oliveira HC,, Assato PA,, Marcos CM,, Scorzoni L,, de Paula E Silva AC,, Da Silva JF,, Singulani JL,, Alarcon KM,, Fusco-Almeida AM,, Mendes-Giannini MJ . 2015. Paracoccidioides-host interaction: an overview on recent advances in the paracoccidioidomycosis. Front Microbiol 6 : 1319.[CrossRef]
197. Parente JA,, Salem-Izacc SM,, Santana JM,, Pereira M,, Borges CL,, Bailão AM,, Soares CM . 2010. A secreted serine protease of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis and its interactions with fungal proteins. BMC Microbiol 10 : 292.[CrossRef]
198. Castilho DG,, Chaves AF,, Xander P,, Zelanis A,, Kitano ES,, Serrano SM,, Tashima AK,, Batista WL . 2014. Exploring potential virulence regulators in Paracoccidioides brasiliensis isolates of varying virulence through quantitative proteomics. J Proteome Res 13 : 4259– 4271.[CrossRef]
199. Lanternier F,, Pathan S,, Vincent QB,, Liu L,, Cypowyj S,, Prando C,, Migaud M,, Taibi L,, Ammar-Khodja A,, Boudghene Stambouli O,, Guellil B,, Jacobs F,, Goffard JC,, Schepers K,, del Marmol V,, Boussofara L,, Denguezli M,, Larif M,, Bachelez H,, Michel L,, Lefranc G,, Hay R,, Jouvion G,, Chretien F,, Fraitag S,, Bougnoux ME,, Boudia M,, Abel L,, Lortholary O,, Casanova JL,, Picard C,, Grimbacher B,, Puel A . 2013. Deep dermatophytosis and inherited CARD9 deficiency. N Engl J Med 369 : 1704– 1714.[CrossRef]
200. Grumach AS,, de Queiroz-Telles F,, Migaud M,, Lanternier F,, Filho NR,, Palma SM,, Constantino-Silva RN,, Casanova JL,, Puel A . 2015. A homozygous CARD9 mutation in a Brazilian patient with deep dermatophytosis. J Clin Immunol 35 : 486– 490.[CrossRef]
201. Gradisar H,, Friedrich J,, Krizaj I,, Jerala R . 2005. Similarities and specificities of fungal keratinolytic proteases: comparison of keratinases of Paecilomyces marquandii and