1887

Chapter 9 : Viral Agents of Human Disease: Biosafety Concerns

Authors: Michelle Rozo1, James Lawler2, Jason Paragas3
VIEW AFFILIATIONS HIDE AFFILIATIONS
Affiliations: 1: Navy Medical Research Center, Clinical Research, Fort Detrick, Maryland; 2: Navy Medical Research Center, Clinical Research, Fort Detrick, Maryland; 3: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Global Security, Livermore, California
Content Type: Reference
Publication Year: 2017

Category: Applied and Industrial Microbiology; Clinical Microbiology

MyBook is a cheap paperback edition of the original book and will be sold at uniform, low price.

Preview this chapter:
Preview Magnify
Zoom in
Zoomout

Viral Agents of Human Disease: Biosafety Concerns, Page 1 of 2

| /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555819637/9781555816209.ch9-1.gif /docserver/preview/fulltext/10.1128/9781555819637/9781555816209.ch9-2.gif

Abstract:

This chapter discusses the unique hazards of handling biosamples that contain viruses and the illnesses that can result from occupational exposure and infection. Basic concepts of virology and clinical syndromes of viral infections are reviewed, with specific attention dedicated to viral pathogens associated with a risk of work-acquired infections. The last section addresses laboratory safety challenges presented by newer biotechnologies. Armed with the knowledge presented in this chapter, the laboratorian will be able to define a risk management matrix based on the risk of a virus in a specimen from a patient manifesting a specific illness, the types of procedures used in the laboratory, and the potential outcome of a laboratory-acquired infection (LAI).

Citation: Rozo M, Lawler J, Paragas J. 2017. Viral Agents of Human Disease: Biosafety Concerns, p 187-220. In Wooley D, Byers K (ed), Biological Safety: Principles and Practices, Fifth Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555819637.ch9
Highlighted Text: Show | Hide
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

Figures

Viral Agents of Human Disease: Biosafety Concerns
[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555819637.ch9-1,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555819637.ch9-1,properties={foaf_givenname=Michelle, foaf_name=Michelle Rozo, foaf_surname=Rozo, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555819637.ch9-aff1]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555819637.ch9-2,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555819637.ch9-2,properties={foaf_givenname=James, foaf_name=James Lawler, foaf_surname=Lawler, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555819637.ch9-aff2]]}], com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/author/10.1128/9781555819637.ch9-3,webId=/content/author/10.1128/9781555819637.ch9-3,properties={foaf_givenname=Jason, foaf_name=Jason Paragas, foaf_surname=Paragas, pub_isAffiliatedWith=[com.pub2web.rdf.cci.facet.ContentItem[id=http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/affiliation/10.1128/9781555819637.ch9-aff3]]}]]
Citation: Rozo M, Lawler J, Paragas J. 2017. Viral Agents of Human Disease: Biosafety Concerns, p 187-220. In Wooley D, Byers K (ed), Biological Safety: Principles and Practices, Fifth Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555819637.ch9
/content/10.1128/9781555819637.ch9.ch9fig1
Figure 1

Risk matrix that may serve as a framework for making decisions for planned experiments and for analyzing the impact of experimental and engineering controls used to manage risk. The consequences, of increasing severity, are noted on the axis. The axis represents the probability of an event occurring. Stoplight colors are used to indicate regions of the matrix that may represent areas of differing risks. The eclipse is a representative of the wide scope that genetically engineered viruses may represent in the matrix.

10.1128/9781555819637/9637ch9fig1_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555819637/9637ch9fig1.gif
Image of Figure 1
Figure 1

Risk matrix that may serve as a framework for making decisions for planned experiments and for analyzing the impact of experimental and engineering controls used to manage risk. The consequences, of increasing severity, are noted on the axis. The axis represents the probability of an event occurring. Stoplight colors are used to indicate regions of the matrix that may represent areas of differing risks. The eclipse is a representative of the wide scope that genetically engineered viruses may represent in the matrix.

Citation: Rozo M, Lawler J, Paragas J. 2017. Viral Agents of Human Disease: Biosafety Concerns, p 187-220. In Wooley D, Byers K (ed), Biological Safety: Principles and Practices, Fifth Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555819637.ch9
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint
/content/10.1128/9781555819637.ch9.ch9fig2
Figure 2

Chart representing the course of differing aspects of CCHFV infection in human. Incidences are noted on the axis and the clinical day is noted on the axis. (Adapted with permission from reference .)

10.1128/9781555819637/9637ch9fig2_thmb.gif
10.1128/9781555819637/9637ch9fig2.gif
Image of Figure 2
Figure 2

Chart representing the course of differing aspects of CCHFV infection in human. Incidences are noted on the axis and the clinical day is noted on the axis. (Adapted with permission from reference .)

Citation: Rozo M, Lawler J, Paragas J. 2017. Viral Agents of Human Disease: Biosafety Concerns, p 187-220. In Wooley D, Byers K (ed), Biological Safety: Principles and Practices, Fifth Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555819637.ch9
Permissions and Reprints Request Permissions
Download as Powerpoint

References

/content/book/10.1128/9781555819637.ch9
1. Monath TP . 1991. Yellow fever: Victor, Victoria? Conqueror, conquest? Epidemics and research in the last forty years and prospects for the future. Am J Trop Med Hyg 45 : 1– 43.[PubMed]
2. Holland DJ . 1998. Emerging viruses. Curr Opin Pediatr 10 : 34– 40.[PubMed]
3. Marwick C . 1989. Scientists ponder when, why of emerging viruses. JAMA 262 : 16.[PubMed]
4. Nedry M, Mahon CR . 2003. West Nile virus: an emerging virus in North America. Clin Lab Sci 16 : 43– 49.[PubMed]
5. Ríos Olivares E . 1997. The investigation of emerging and re-emerging viral diseases: a paradign. Bol Asoc Med P R 89 : 127– 133.[PubMed]
6. Pike RM . 1976. Laboratory-associated infections: summary and analysis of 3921 cases. Health Lab Sci 13 : 105– 114.[PubMed]
7. Sulkin SE, Pike RM . 1949. Viral infections contracted in the laboratory. N Engl J Med 241 : 205– 213.[PubMed]
8. Sulkin SE, Pike RM . 1951. Survey of laboratory-acquired infections. Am J Public Health Nations Health 41 : 769– 781.[PubMed]
9. Hanson RP, Sulkin SE, Beuscher EL, Hammon WM, McKinney RW, Work TH . 1967. Arbovirus infections of laboratory workers. Extent of problem emphasizes the need for more effective measures to reduce hazards. Science 158 : 1283– 1286.[PubMed]
10. Büchen-Osmond C, . 2003. Taxonomy and classification of viruses, p 1217– 1226. In Murray P, Baron E, Jorgensen J, Pfaller M, Yolken R (ed), Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 8th ed, vol 2. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
11. Domingo E, Escarmís C, Sevilla N, Moya A, Elena SF, Quer J, Novella IS, Holland JJ . 1996. Basic concepts in RNA virus evolution. FASEB J 10 : 859– 864.[PubMed]
12. Duarte EA, Novella IS, Weaver SC, Domingo E, Wain-Hobson S, Clarke DK, Moya A, Elena SF, de la Torre JC, Holland JJ . 1994. RNA virus quasispecies: significance for viral disease and epidemiology. Infect Agents Dis 3 : 201– 214.[PubMed]
13. Domingo E, Menéndez-Arias L, Holland JJ . 1997. RNA virus fitness. Rev Med Virol 7 : 87– 96.[PubMed]
14. Martin ML, Lindsey-Regnery H, Sasso DR, McCormick JB, Palmer E . 1985. Distinction between Bunyaviridae genera by surface structure and comparison with Hantaan virus using negative stain electron microscopy. Arch Virol 86 : 17– 28.[PubMed]
15. Arikawa J, Schmaljohn AL, Dalrymple JM, Schmaljohn CS . 1989. Characterization of Hantaan virus envelope glycoprotein antigenic determinants defined by monoclonal antibodies. J Gen Virol 70 : 615– 624.[PubMed]
16. Foulke RS, Rosato RR, French GR . 1981. Structural polypeptides of Hazara virus. J Gen Virol 53 : 169– 172.[PubMed]
17. Pekosz A, Griot C, Nathanson N, Gonzalez-Scarano F . 1995. Tropism of bunyaviruses: evidence for a G1 glycoprotein-mediated entry pathway common to the California serogroup. Virology 214 : 339– 348.[PubMed]
18. Sanchez AJ, Vincent MJ, Nichol ST . 2002. Characterization of the glycoproteins of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus. J Virol 76 : 7263– 7275.[PubMed]
19. Bishop DH . 1979. Genetic potential of bunyaviruses. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 86 : 1– 33.[PubMed]
20. Hooper JW, Larsen T, Custer DM, Schmaljohn CS . 2001. A lethal disease model for hantavirus pulmonary syndrome. Virology 289 : 6– 14.[PubMed]
21. Vincent MJ, Sanchez AJ, Erickson BR, Basak A, Chretien M, Seidah NG, Nichol ST . 2003. Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus glycoprotein proteolytic processing by subtilase SKI-1. J Virol 77 : 8640– 8649.[PubMed]
22. Yang ZY, Duckers HJ, Sullivan NJ, Sanchez A, Nabel EG, Nabel GJ . 2000. Identification of the Ebola virus glycoprotein as the main viral determinant of vascular cell cytotoxicity and injury. Nat Med 6 : 886– 889.[PubMed]
23. Geimonen E, Neff S, Raymond T, Kocer SS, Gavrilovskaya IN, Mackow ER . 2002. Pathogenic and nonpathogenic hantaviruses differentially regulate endothelial cell responses. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99 : 13837– 13842.[PubMed]
24. Gubler DJ, Trent DW . 1993. Emergence of epidemic dengue/dengue hemorrhagic fever as a public health problem in the Americas. Infect Agents Dis 2 : 383– 393.[PubMed]
25. Calisher CH, Karabatsos N, Dalrymple JM, Shope RE, Porterfield JS, Westaway EG, Brandt WE . 1989. Antigenic relationships between flaviviruses as determined by cross-neutralization tests with polyclonal antisera. J Gen Virol 70 : 37– 43.[PubMed]
26. Nisalak A, Endy TP, Nimmannitya S, Kalayanarooj S, Thisayakorn U, Scott RM, Burke DS, Hoke CH, Innis BL, Vaughn DW . 2003. Serotype-specific dengue virus circulation and dengue disease in Bangkok, Thailand from 1973 to 1999. Am J Trop Med Hyg 68 : 191– 202.[PubMed]
27. Rico-Hesse R, Harrison LM, Nisalak A, Vaughn DW, Kalayanarooj S, Green S, Rothman AL, Ennis FA . 1998. Molecular evolution of dengue type 2 virus in Thailand. Am J Trop Med Hyg 58 : 96– 101.[PubMed]
28. Endy TP, Chunsuttiwat S, Nisalak A, Libraty DH, Green S, Rothman AL, Vaughn DW, Ennis FA . 2002. Epidemiology of inapparent and symptomatic acute dengue virus infection: a prospective study of primary school children in Kamphaeng Phet, Thailand. Am J Epidemiol 156 : 40– 51.[PubMed]
29. Endy TP, Nisalak A, Chunsuttiwat S, Libraty DH, Green S, Rothman AL, Vaughn DW, Ennis FA . 2002. Spatial and temporal circulation of dengue virus serotypes: a prospective study of primary school children in Kamphaeng Phet, Thailand. Am J Epidemiol 156 : 52– 59.[PubMed]
30. Hay SI, Myers MF, Burke DS, Vaughn DW, Endy T, Ananda N, Shanks GD, Snow RW, Rogers DJ . 2000. Etiology of interepidemic periods of mosquito-borne disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97 : 9335– 9339.[PubMed]
31. Wikan N, Smith DR . 2016. Zika virus: history of a newly emerging arbovirus. Lancet Infect Dis 16 : e119– e126.[PubMed]
32. Wang L, Valderramos SG, Wu A, Ouyang S, Li C, Brasil P, Bonaldo M, Coates T, Nielsen-Saines K, Jiang T, Aliyari R, Cheng G . 2016. From mosquitos to humans: genetic evolution of Zika virus. Cell Host Microbe 19 : 561– 565.[PubMed]
33. World Health Organization . 2016. WHO Director-General Summarizes the Outcome of the Emergency Committee Regarding Clusters of Microcephaly and Guillain-Barré Syndrome. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
34. Mahy BWJ, Kangro HO . 1996. Virology Methods Manual. Academic Press, London, United Kingdom.
35. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) . 2011. Fatal laboratory-acquired infection with an attenuated Yersinia pestis Strain—Chicago, Illinois, 2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 60 : 201– 205.[PubMed]
36. Altaf A, Luby S, Ahmed AJ, Zaidi N, Khan AJ, Mirza S, McCormick J, Fisher-Hoch S . 1998. Outbreak of Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever in Quetta, Pakistan: contact tracing and risk assessment. Trop Med Int Health 3 : 878– 882.[PubMed]
37. Biesbroeck L, Sidbury R . 2013. Viral exanthems: an update. Dermatol Ther (Heidelb) 26 : 433– 438.[PubMed]
38. Swanepoel R, Shepherd AJ, Leman PA, Shepherd SP, McGillivray GM, Erasmus MJ, Searle LA, Gill DE . 1987. Epidemiologic and clinical features of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever in southern Africa. Am J Trop Med Hyg 36 : 120– 132.[PubMed]
39. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) . 1998. Fatal Cercopithecine herpesvirus 1 (B virus) infection following a mucocutaneous exposure and interim recommendations for worker protection. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 47 : 1073– 1076, 1083.[PubMed]
40. Normile D . 2003. Infectious diseases. SARS experts want labs to improve safety practices. Science 302 : 31.[PubMed]
41. Orellana C . 2004. Laboratory-acquired SARS raises worries on biosafety. Lancet Infect Dis 4 : 64.[PubMed]
42. Ryder RW, Gandsman EJ . 1995. Laboratory-acquired Sabiá virus infection. N Engl J Med 333 : 1716.[PubMed]
43. Chen EC, Yagi S, Kelly KR, Mendoza SP, Tarara RP, Canfield DR, Maninger N, Rosenthal A, Spinner A, Bales KL, Schnurr DP, Lerche NW, Chiu CY. 2011. Cross-species transmission of a novel adenovirus associated with a fulminant pneumonia outbreak in a new world monkey colony. PLoS Pathog 7: e1002155.[PubMed]
44. Jahrling PB, Peters CJ . 1992. Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus. A neglected pathogen of man. Arch Pathol Lab Med 116 : 486– 488.[PubMed]
45. Bowen GS, Calisher CH, Winkler WG, Kraus AL, Fowler EH, Garman RH, Fraser DW, Hinman AR . 1975. Laboratory studies of a lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus outbreak in man and laboratory animals. Am J Epidemiol 102 : 233– 240.[PubMed]
46. Dykewicz CA, Dato VM, Fisher-Hoch SP, Howarth MV, Perez-Oronoz GI, Ostroff SM, Gary H Jr, Schonberger LB, McCormick JB . 1992. Lymphocytic choriomeningitis outbreak associated with nude mice in a research institute. JAMA 267 : 1349– 1353.[PubMed]
47. Lehmann-Grube F, Ibscher B, Bugislaus E, Kallay M . 1979. [A serological study concerning the role of the golden hamster ( Mesocricetus auratus) in transmitting lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus to humans (author's transl)]. Med Microbiol Immunol (Berl) 167 : 205– 210.[PubMed]
48. Rousseau MC, Saron MF, Brouqui P, Bourgeade A . 1997. Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus in southern France: four case reports and a review of the literature. Eur J Epidemiol 13 : 817– 823.[PubMed]
49. Childs JE, Glass GE, Korch GW, Ksiazek TG, Leduc JW . 1992. Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection and house mouse ( Mus musculus) distribution in urban Baltimore. Am J Trop Med Hyg 47 : 27– 34.[PubMed]
50. Morita C, Tsuchiya K, Ueno H, Muramatsu Y, Kojimahara A, Suzuki H, Miyashita N, Moriwaki K, Jin ML, Wu XL, Wang FS . 1996. Seroepidemiological survey of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus in wild house mice in China with particular reference to their subspecies. Microbiol Immunol 40 : 313– 315.
51. Smith AL, Singleton GR, Hansen GM, Shellam G . 1993. A serologic survey for viruses and Mycoplasma pulmonis among wild house mice ( Mus domesticus) in southeastern Australia. J Wildl Dis 29 : 219– 229.[PubMed]
52. Lucke VM, Bennett AM . 1982. An outbreak of hepatitis in marmosets in a zoological collection. Lab Anim 16 : 73– 77.[PubMed]
53. Montali RJ, Ramsay EC, Stephensen CB, Worley M, Davis JA, Holmes KV . 1989. A new transmissible viral hepatitis of marmosets and tamarins. J Infect Dis 160 : 759– 765.[PubMed]
54. Stephensen CB, Jacob JR, Montali RJ, Holmes KV, Muchmore E, Compans RW, Arms ED, Buchmeier MJ, Lanford RE . 1991. Isolation of an arenavirus from a marmoset with callitrichid hepatitis and its serologic association with disease. J Virol 65 : 3995– 4000.[PubMed]
55. Stephensen CB, Montali RJ, Ramsay EC, Holmes KV . 1990. Identification, using sera from exposed animals, of putative viral antigens in livers of primates with callitrichid hepatitis. J Virol 64 : 6349– 6354.[PubMed]
56. Stephensen CB, Park JY, Blount SR . 1995. cDNA sequence analysis confirms that the etiologic agent of callitrichid hepatitis is lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus. J Virol 69 : 1349– 1352.[PubMed]
57. Richter C, Lehner N, Henrickson R, . 1984. Primates, p 297– 383. In Fox JG, Cohen BJ, Loew FM (ed), Laboratory Animal Medicine. Academic Press, Orlando, FL.
58. Adams SR, . 1995. Zoonoses, biohazards and other health risks, p 391– 412. In Bennett BT, Abee CR, Henrickson R (ed), Nonhuman Primates in Biomedical Research. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
59. Lehmann-Grube F, . 1982. Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, p 231– 266. In Foster H, Small J, Fox J (ed), The Mouse in Biomedical Resesarch. Academic Press, New York, NY.
60. Bhatt PN, Jacoby RO, Barthold SW . 1986. Contamination of transplantable murine tumors with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus. Lab Anim Sci 36 : 136– 139.[PubMed]
61. Nicklas W, Kraft V, Meyer B . 1993. Contamination of transplantable tumors, cell lines, and monoclonal antibodies with rodent viruses. Lab Anim Sci 43 : 296– 300.[PubMed]
62. Biggar RJ, Woodall JP, Walter PD, Haughie GE . 1975. Lymphocytic choriomeningitis outbreak associated with pet hamsters. Fifty-seven cases from New York State. JAMA 232 : 494– 500.[PubMed]
63. Hinman AR, Fraser DW, Douglas RG, Bowen GS, Kraus AL, Winkler WG, Rhodes WW . 1975. Outbreak of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infections in medical center personnel. Am J Epidemiol 101 : 103– 110.[PubMed]
64. Johnson KM, . 1990. Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, lassa virus (lassa fever) and other arenaviruses, p 1329– 1334. In Mandell GL,, Gordon DR,, Bennett JE (ed), Principles and Practices of Infectious Diseases. Churchill Livingstone Inc, New York, NY.
65. Wright R, Johnson D, Neumann M, Ksiazek TG, Rollin P, Keech RV, Bonthius DJ, Hitchon P, Grose CF, Bell WE, Bale JF Jr . 1997. Congenital lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus syndrome: a disease that mimics congenital toxoplasmosis or cytomegalovirus infection. Pediatrics 100 : E9.[PubMed]
66. Barry M, Russi M, Armstrong L, Geller D, Tesh R, Dembry L, Gonzalez JP, Khan AS, Peters CJ . 1995. Brief report: treatment of a laboratory-acquired Sabiá virus infection. N Engl J Med 333 : 294– 296.[PubMed]
67. Gandsman EJ, Aaslestad HG, Ouimet TC, Rupp WD . 1997. Sabia virus incident at Yale University. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 58 : 51– 53.[PubMed]
68. Andrei G, De Clercq E . 1993. Molecular approaches for the treatment of hemorrhagic fever virus infections. Antiviral Res 22 : 45– 75.[PubMed]
69. Mendenhall M, Russell A, Juelich T, Messina EL, Smee DF, Freiberg AN, Holbrook MR, Furuta Y, de la Torre JC, Nunberg JH, Gowen BB . 2011. T-705 (favipiravir) inhibition of arenavirus replication in cell culture. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 55 : 782– 787.[PubMed]
70. Whitehouse CA . 2004. Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever. Antiviral Res 64 : 145– 160.[PubMed]
71. Swanepoel R, Gill DE, Shepherd AJ, Leman PA, Mynhardt JH, Harvey S . 1989. The clinical pathology of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever. Rev Infect Dis 11( Suppl 4) : S794– S800.[PubMed]
72. Schmaljohn C, Hjelle B . 1997. Hantaviruses: a global disease problem. Emerg Infect Dis 3 : 95– 104.[PubMed]
73. Childs JE, Kaufmann AF, Peters CJ, Ehrenberg RL Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . 1993. Hantavirus infection—southwestern United States: interim recommendations for risk reduction. MMWR Recomm Rep 42( RR-11) : 1– 13.[PubMed]
74. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) . 1993. Update: outbreak of hantavirus infection—southwestern United States, 1993. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 42 : 477– 479.[PubMed]
75. Tsai TF . 1987. Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome: mode of transmission to humans. Lab Anim Sci 37 : 428– 430.[PubMed]
76. Tsai TF, Bauer SP, Sasso DR, Whitfield SG, McCormick JB, Caraway TC, McFarland L, Bradford H, Kurata T . 1985. Serological and virological evidence of a Hantaan virus-related enzootic in the United States. J Infect Dis 152 : 126– 136.[PubMed]
77. LeDuc JW . 1987. Epidemiology of Hantaan and related viruses. Lab Anim Sci 37 : 413– 418.[PubMed]
78. Hjelle B, Tórrez-Martínez N, Koster FT, Jay M, Ascher MS, Brown T, Reynolds P, Ettestad P, Voorhees RE, Sarisky J, Enscore RE, Sands L, Mosley DG, Kioski C, Bryan RT, Sewell CM . 1996. Epidemiologic linkage of rodent and human hantavirus genomic sequences in case investigations of hantavirus pulmonary syndrome. J Infect Dis 173 : 781– 786.[PubMed]
79. Jay M, Hjelle B, Davis R, Ascher M, Baylies HN, Reilly K, Vugia D . 1996. Occupational exposure leading to hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in a utility company employee. Clin Infect Dis 22 : 841– 844.[PubMed]
80. Xu ZY, Tang YW, Kan LY, Tsai TF . 1987. Cats—source of protection or infection? A case-control study of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome. Am J Epidemiol 126 : 942– 948.[PubMed]
81. Kawamata J, Yamanouchi T, Dohmae K, Miyamoto H, Takahaski M, Yamanishi K, Kurata T, Lee HW . 1987. Control of laboratory acquired hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) in Japan. Lab Anim Sci 37 : 431– 436.[PubMed]
82. Lee HW, Johnson KM . 1982. Laboratory-acquired infections with Hantaan virus, the etiologic agent of Korean hemorrhagic fever. J Infect Dis 146 : 645– 651.[PubMed]
83. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . 1994. Laboratory management of agents associated with hantavirus pulmonary syndrome: interim biosafety guidelines. MMWR Recomm Rep 43( RR-7) : 1– 7.[PubMed]
84. Huggins JW, Hsiang CM, Cosgriff TM, Guang MY, Smith JI, Wu ZO, LeDuc JW, Zheng ZM, Meegan JM, Wang QN, Oland DD, Gui XE, Gibbs PH, Yuan GH, Zhang TM . 1991. Prospective, double-blind, concurrent, placebo-controlled clinical trial of intravenous ribavirin therapy of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome. J Infect Dis 164 : 1119– 1127.[PubMed]
85. Moreli ML, Marques-Silva AC, Pimentel VA, da Costa VG . 2014. Effectiveness of the ribavirin in treatment of hantavirus infections in the Americas and Eurasia: a meta-analysis. Virusdisease 25 : 385– 389.[PubMed]
86. Dokuzoguz B, Celikbas AK, Gök SE, Baykam N, Eroglu MN, Ergönül Ö . 2013. Severity scoring index for Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever and the impact of ribavirin and corticosteroids on fatality. Clin Infect Dis 57 : 1270– 1274.[PubMed]
87. Ozbey SB, Kader Ç, Erbay A, Ergönül Ö . 2014. Early use of ribavirin is beneficial in Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 14 : 300– 302.[PubMed]
88. Martinez-Valdebenito C, Calvo M, Vial C, Mansilla R, Marco C, Palma RE, Vial PA, Valdivieso F, Mertz G, Ferrés M . 2014. Person-to-person household and nosocomial transmission of andes hantavirus, Southern Chile, 2011. Emerg Infect Dis 20 : 1629– 1636.[PubMed]
89. World Health Organization . 2016. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), on World Health Organization. http://who.int/emergencies/mers-cov/en/.
90. Zumla A, Hui DS, Perlman S . 2015. Middle East respiratory syndrome. Lancet 386 : 995– 1007.[PubMed]
91. Li RW, Leung KW, Sun FC, Samaranayake LP . 2004. Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and the GDP. Part I: Epidemiology, virology, pathology and general health issues. Br Dent J 197 : 77– 80.[PubMed]
92. Senio K . 2003. Recent Singapore SARS case a laboratory accident. Lancet Infect Dis 3 : 679.[PubMed]
93. Kuhn JH . , et al . 2014. Virus nomenclature below the species level: a standardized nomenclature for filovirus strains and variants rescued from cDNA. Arch Virol 159 : 1229– 1237.[PubMed]
94. Negredo A, Palacios G, Vázquez-Morón S, González F, Dopazo H, Molero F, Juste J, Quetglas J, Savji N, de la Cruz Martínez M, Herrera JE, Pizarro M, Hutchison SK, Echevarría JE, Lipkin WI, Tenorio A . 2011. Discovery of an ebolavirus-like filovirus in europe. PLoS Pathog 7 : e1002304.[PubMed]
95. Formenty P, Hatz C, Le Guenno B, Stoll A, Rogenmoser P, Widmer A . 1999. Human infection due to Ebola virus, subtype Côte d'Ivoire: clinical and biologic presentation. J Infect Dis 179( Suppl 1) : S48– S53.[PubMed]
96. Geisbert TW, Hensley LE . 2004. Ebola virus: new insights into disease aetiopathology and possible therapeutic interventions. Expert Rev Mol Med 6 : 1– 24.[PubMed]
97. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . 2016. 2014 Ebola Outbreak in West Africa. https://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/outbreaks/2014-west-africa/.
98. Schieffelin JS, Shaffer JG, Goba A, Gbakie M, Gire SK, Colubri A, Sealfon RS, Kanneh L, Moigboi A, Momoh M, Fullah M, Moses LM, Brown BL, Andersen KG, Winnicki S, Schaffner SF, Park DJ, Yozwiak NL, Jiang P-P, Kargbo D, Jalloh S, Fonnie M, Sinnah V, French I, Kovoma A, Kamara FK, Tucker V, Konuwa E, Sellu J, Mustapha I, Foday M, Yillah M, Kanneh F, Saffa S, Massally JL, Boisen ML, Branco LM, Vandi MA, Grant DS, Happi C, Gevao SM, Fletcher TE, Fowler RA, Bausch DG, Sabeti PC, Khan SH, Garry RF Program KGHLF, Viral Hemorrhagic Fever C, Team WHOCR, KGH Lassa Fever Program, Viral Hemorrhagic Fever Consortium, WHO Clinical Response Team . 2014. Clinical illness and outcomes in patients with Ebola in Sierra Leone. N Engl J Med 371 : 2092– 2100.[PubMed][CrossRef]
99. WHO Ebola Response Team . 2014. Ebola virus disease in West Africa—the first 9 months of the epidemic and forward projections. N Engl J Med 371 : 1481– 1495.[PubMed]
100. Isaacson M, . 1988. Marburg and Ebola virus infections, p 185– 197. In Gear JHS (ed), Handbook of Viral and Rickettsial Hemorrhagic Fevers. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
101. Breman JG, Johnson KM . 2014. Ebola then and now. N Engl J Med 371 : 1663– 1666.[PubMed]
102. Formenty P, Boesch C, Wyers M, Steiner C, Donati F, Dind F, Walker F, Le Guenno B . 1999. Ebola virus outbreak among wild chimpanzees living in a rain forest of Côte d'Ivoire. J Infect Dis 179( Suppl 1) : S120– S126.[PubMed]
103. Dallatomasina S, Crestani R, Sylvester Squire J, Declerk H, Caleo GM, Wolz A, Stinson K, Patten G, Brechard R, Gbabai OB, Spreicher A, Van Herp M, Zachariah R . 2015. Ebola outbreak in rural West Africa: epidemiology, clinical features and outcomes. Trop Med Int Health 20 : 448– 454.[PubMed]
104. Osterholm MT, Moore KA, Kelley NS, Brosseau LM, Wong G, Murphy FA, Peters CJ, LeDuc JW, Russell PK, Van Herp M, Kapetshi J, Muyembe JJ, Ilunga BK, Strong JE, Grolla A, Wolz A, Kargbo B, Kargbo DK, Sanders DA, Kobinger GP . 2015. Correction for Osterholm et al., Transmission of Ebola viruses: what we know and what we do not know. MBio 6 : e01154.[PubMed]
105. Jahrling PB, Geisbert TW, Johnson ED, Peters CJ, Dalgard DW, Hall WC . 1990. Preliminary report: isolation of Ebola virus from monkeys imported to USA. Lancet 335 : 502– 505.[PubMed]
106. Francesconi P, Yoti Z, Declich S, Onek PA, Fabiani M, Olango J, Andraghetti R, Rollin PE, Opira C, Greco D, Salmaso S . 2003. Ebola hemorrhagic fever transmission and risk factors of contacts, Uganda. Emerg Infect Dis 9 : 1430– 1437.[PubMed]
107. Chughtai AA, Barnes M, Macintyre CR . 2016. Persistence of Ebola virus in various body fluids during convalescence: evidence and implications for disease transmission and control. Epidemiol Infect 144 : 1652– 1660.[PubMed]
108. Sow MS, Etard JF, Baize S, Magassouba N, Faye O, Msellati P, Toure AI, Savane I, Barry M, Delaporte E for the Postebogui Study Group . 2016. New evidence of long-lasting persistence of Ebola virus genetic material in semen of survivors. J Infect Dis 214: 1475– 1476.
109. Jacobs M, Rodger A, Bell DJ, Bhagani S, Cropley I, Filipe A, Gifford RJ, Hopkins S, Hughes J, Jabeen F, Johannessen I, Karageorgopoulos D, Lackenby A, Lester R, Liu RS, MacConnachie A, Mahungu T, Martin D, Marshall N, Mepham S, Orton R, Palmarini M, Patel M, Perry C, Peters SE, Porter D, Ritchie D, Ritchie ND, Seaton RA, Sreenu VB, Templeton K, Warren S, Wilkie GS, Zambon M, Gopal R, Thomson EC . 2016. Late Ebola virus relapse causing meningoencephalitis: a case report. Lancet 388 : 498– 503.[PubMed]
110. Emond RT, Evans B, Bowen ET, Lloyd G . 1977. A case of Ebola virus infection. BMJ 2 : 541– 544.[PubMed]
111. Miller J . 2004. Russian scientist dies in Ebola accident at former weapons lab. In The New York Times. New York, NY. http://www.nytimes.com/2004/05/25/world/russian-scientist-dies-in-ebola-accident-at-former-weapons-lab.html?_r=0.
112. Günther S, Feldmann H, Geisbert TW, Hensley LE, Rollin PE, Nichol ST, Ströher U, Artsob H, Peters CJ, Ksiazek TG, Becker S, ter Meulen J, Olschläger S, Schmidt-Chanasit J, Sudeck H, Burchard GD, Schmiedel S . 2011. Management of accidental exposure to Ebola virus in the biosafety level 4 laboratory, Hamburg, Germany. J Infect Dis 204( Suppl 3) : S785– S790.[PubMed]
113. Kortepeter MG, Martin JW, Rusnak JM, Cieslak TJ, Warfield KL, Anderson EL, Ranadive MV . 2008. Managing potential laboratory exposure to ebola virus by using a patient biocontainment care unit. Emerg Infect Dis 14 : 881– 887.[PubMed]
114. Olu O, Kargbo B, Kamara S, Wurie AH, Amone J, Ganda L, Ntsama B, Poy A, Kuti-George F, Engedashet E, Worku N, Cormican M, Okot C, Yoti Z, Kamara KB, Chitala K, Chimbaru A, Kasolo F . 2015. Epidemiology of Ebola virus disease transmission among health care workers in Sierra Leone, May to December 2014: a retrospective descriptive study. BMC Infect Dis 15 : 416.[PubMed]
115. Haddock E, Feldmann F, Feldmann H . 2016. Effective chemical inactivation of Ebola virus. Emerg Infect Dis 22 : 1292– 1294.[PubMed]
116. Uyeki TM, Mehta AK, Davey RT Jr, Liddell AM, Wolf T, Vetter P, Schmiedel S, Grünewald T, Jacobs M, Arribas JR, Evans L, Hewlett AL, Brantsaeter AB, Ippolito G, Rapp C, Hoepelman AI, Gutman J Working Group of the U.S.–European Clinical Network on Clinical Management of Ebola Virus Disease Patients in the U.S. and Europe . 2016. Clinical management of Ebola virus disease in the United States and Europe. N Engl J Med 374 : 636– 646.[PubMed]
117. Jacobs M, Aarons E, Bhagani S, Buchanan R, Cropley I, Hopkins S, Lester R, Martin D, Marshall N, Mepham S, Warren S, Rodger A . 2015. Post-exposure prophylaxis against Ebola virus disease with experimental antiviral agents: a case-series of health-care workers. Lancet Infect Dis 15 : 1300– 1304.[PubMed]
118. Wong KK,, Davey RT Jr,, Hewlett AL,, Kraft CS,, Mehta AK,, Mulligan MJ,, Beck A,, Dorman W,, Kratochvil CJ,, Lai L,, Palmore TN,, Rogers S,, Smith PW,, Suffredini AF,, Wolcott M,, Ströher U,, Uyeki TM. 2016. Use of postexposure prophylaxis after occupational exposure to Zaire ebolavirus. Clin Infect Dis 63 : 376– 379.
119. Henao-Restrepo AM, Longini IM, Egger M, Dean NE, Edmunds WJ, Camacho A, Carroll MW, Doumbia M, Draguez B, Duraffour S, Enwere G, Grais R, Gunther S, Hossmann S, Kondé MK, Kone S, Kuisma E, Levine MM, Mandal S, Norheim G, Riveros X, Soumah A, Trelle S, Vicari AS, Watson CH, Kéïta S, Kieny MP, Røttingen JA . 2015. Efficacy and effectiveness of an rVSV-vectored vaccine expressing Ebola surface glycoprotein: interim results from the Guinea ring vaccination cluster-randomised trial. Lancet 386 : 857– 866.[PubMed]
120. Frank C, Cadar D, Schlaphof A, Neddersen N, Günther S, Schmidt-Chanasit J, Tappe D . 2016. Sexual transmission of Zika virus in Germany, April 2016. Euro Surveill 21 : 21.[PubMed]
121. Musso D, Roche C, Robin E, Nhan T, Teissier A, Cao-Lormeau VM . 2015. Potential sexual transmission of Zika virus. Emerg Infect Dis 21 : 359– 361.[PubMed]
122. Panchaud A, Stojanov M, Ammerdorffer A, Vouga M, Baud D . 2016. Emerging role of Zika virus in adverse fetal and neonatal outcomes. Clin Microbiol Rev 29 : 659– 694.[PubMed]
123. Sartori M, La Terra G, Aglietta M, Manzin A, Navino C, Verzetti G . 1993. Transmission of hepatitis C via blood splash into conjunctiva. Scand J Infect Dis 25 : 270– 271.[PubMed]
124. Alter MJ . 1997. The epidemiology of acute and chronic hepatitis C. Clin Liver Dis 1 : 559– 568, vi–vii.[PubMed]
125. Mitsui T, Iwano K, Masuko K, Yamazaki C, Okamoto H, Tsuda F, Tanaka T, Mishiro S . 1992. Hepatitis C virus infection in medical personnel after needlestick accident. Hepatology 16 : 1109– 1114.[PubMed]
126. Foy BD, Kobylinski KC, Chilson Foy JL, Blitvich BJ, Travassos da Rosa A, Haddow AD, Lanciotti RS, Tesh RB . 2011. Probable non-vector-borne transmission of Zika virus, Colorado, USA. Emerg Infect Dis 17 : 880– 882.[PubMed]
127. Anonymous . 2016. Zika virus: laboratory acquired case reported in pittsburgh area. Outbreak News Today, June 9, 2016.
128. Hayden EC . 2016. The race is on to develop Zika vaccine. Nature doi:10.1038/nature.2016.19634. http://www.nature.com/news/the-race-is-on-to-develop-zika-vaccine-1.19634 http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1038/nature.2016.19634
129. Schnirring L . 2016. FDA paves way for first human Zika vaccine trial. CIDRAP News, June 20, 2016.
130. Hull MW, Yoshida EM, Montaner JS . 2016. Update on current evidence for hepatitis C therapeutic options in HCV mono-infected patients. Curr Infect Dis Rep 18 : 22.[PubMed]
131. Lee JY, Locarnini S . 2004. Hepatitis B virus: pathogenesis, viral intermediates, and viral replication. Clin Liver Dis 8 : 301– 320.[PubMed]
132. Locarnini S . 2004. Molecular virology of hepatitis B virus. Semin Liver Dis 24( Suppl 1) : 3– 10.[PubMed]
133. Bouvet E, Tarantola A . 1998. [Protection of hospital personnel against risks of exposure to blood]. Rev Prat 48 : 1558– 1562.[PubMed]
134. Cavalieri J . 2001. Responding rapidly to occupational blood and body-fluid exposures. JAAPA 14 : 22– 24, 27– 30, 33– 25.
135. Westland CE, Yang H, Delaney WE IV, Wulfsohn M, Lama N, Gibbs CS, Miller MD, Fry J, Brosgart CL, Schiff ER, Xiong S . 2005. Activity of adefovir dipivoxil against all patterns of lamivudine-resistant hepatitis B viruses in patients. J Viral Hepat 12 : 67– 73.[PubMed]
136. Zoulim F . 2004. Antiviral therapy of chronic hepatitis B: can we clear the virus and prevent drug resistance? Antivir Chem Chemother 15 : 299– 305.[PubMed]
137. Lok AS, McMahon BJ, Brown RS Jr, Wong JB, Ahmed AT, Farah W, Almasri J, Alahdab F, Benkhadra K, Mouchli MA, Singh S, Mohamed EA, Abu Dabrh AM, Prokop LJ, Wang Z, Murad MH, Mohammed K . 2016. Antiviral therapy for chronic hepatitis B viral infection in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hepatology 63 : 284– 306.[PubMed]
138. Roizman B, Sears AE, . 1993. Herpes simplex viruses and their replication, p 1795– 1841. In Roizman B, Whitley RJ, Lopez C (ed), The Human Herpesviruses. Raven Press, New York, NY.
139. Heymann JB, Conway JF, Steven AC . 2004. Molecular dynamics of protein complexes from four-dimensional cryo-electron microscopy. J Struct Biol 147 : 291– 301.[PubMed]
140. Spruance SL, Overall JC Jr, Kern ER, Krueger GG, Pliam V, Miller W . 1977. The natural history of recurrent herpes simplex labialis: implications for antiviral therapy. N Engl J Med 297 : 69– 75.[PubMed]
141. Baringer JR, Swoveland P . 1973. Recovery of herpes-simplex virus from human trigeminal ganglions. N Engl J Med 288 : 648– 650.[PubMed]
142. Douglas MW, Walters JL, Currie BJ . 2002. Occupational infection with herpes simplex virus type 1 after a needlestick injury. Med J Aust 176 : 240.[PubMed]
143. Manian FA . 2000. Potential role of famciclovir for prevention of herpetic whitlow in the health care setting. Clin Infect Dis 31 : E18– E19.[PubMed]
144. Rosato FE, Rosato EF, Plotkin SA . 1970. Herpetic paronychia—an occupational hazard of medical personnel. N Engl J Med 283 : 804– 805.[PubMed]
145. Hunt RD, Carlton WW, King NW, . 1978. Viral diseases, p 1313. In Benirschke K, Garner FM, Jones TC (ed), Pathology of Laboratory Animals. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY.
146. Mansfield K, King N, . 1998. Viral diseases, p 1– 57. In Bennett BT, Abee CR, Henrickson R (ed), Nonhuman Primates in Biomedical Research. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
147. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) . 1987. Guidelines for prevention of Herpesvirus simiae (B virus) infection in monkey handlers. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 36 : 680– 682, 687–689.[PubMed]
148. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) . 1989. B virus infections in humans—Michigan. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 38 : 453– 454.[PubMed]
149. Gay F, Holden M . 1933. The herpes encephalitis problem, II. J Infect Dis 53 : 287– 303.
150. Zwartouw HT, Boulter EA . 1984. Excretion of B virus in monkeys and evidence of genital infection. Lab Anim 18 : 65– 70.[PubMed]
151. Weigler BJ, Scinicariello F, Hilliard JK . 1995. Risk of venereal B virus (cercopithecine herpesvirus 1) transmission in rhesus monkeys using molecular epidemiology. J Infect Dis 171 : 1139– 1143.[PubMed]
152. Weigler BJ, Hird DW, Hilliard JK, Lerche NW, Roberts JA, Scott LM, Weigler BJ, Hird DW, Hilliard JK, Lerche NW, Roberts JA, Scott LM . 1993. Epidemiology of cercopithecine herpesvirus 1 (B virus) infection and shedding in a large breeding cohort of rhesus macaques. J Infect Dis 167 : 257– 263.[PubMed]
153. Holmes GP, Chapman LE, Stewart JA, Straus SE, Hilliard JK, Davenport DS . 1995. Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of B-virus infections in exposed persons. The B virus Working Group. Clin Infect Dis 20 : 421– 439.[PubMed]
154. Kalter SS, Heberling RL, Cooke AW, Barry JD, Tian PY, Northam WJ . 1997. Viral infections of nonhuman primates. Lab Anim Sci 47 : 461– 467.[PubMed]
155. Palmer AE . 1987. B virus, Herpesvirus simiae: historical perspective. J Med Primatol 16 : 99– 130.[PubMed]
156. Benson PM, Malane SL, Banks R, Hicks CB, Hilliard J . 1989. B virus (Herpesvirus simiae) and human infection. Arch Dermatol 125 : 1247– 1248.[PubMed]
157. Holmes GP . , et al . 1990. B virus ( Herpesvirus simiae) infection in humans: epidemiologic investigation of a cluster. Ann Intern Med 112 : 833– 839.[PubMed]
158. Wells DL, Lipper SL, Hilliard JK, Stewart JA, Holmes GP, Herrmann KL, Kiley MP, Schonberger LB . 1989. Herpesvirus simiae contamination of primary rhesus monkey kidney cell cultures. CDC recommendations to minimize risks to laboratory personnel. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 12 : 333– 335.[PubMed]
159. Benenson AS . 1995. Control of Communicable Diseases Manual, 16th ed. American Public Health Association, Washington, DC.
160. Webster RG . 1997. Influenza virus: transmission between species and relevance to emergence of the next human pandemic. Arch Virol Suppl 13 : 105– 113.[PubMed]
161. Marini RP, Adkins JA, Fox JG . 1989. Proven or potential zoonotic diseases of ferrets. J Am Vet Med Assoc 195 : 990– 994.[PubMed]
162. Wentworth DE, McGregor MW, Macklin MD, Neumann V, Hinshaw VS . 1997. Transmission of swine influenza virus to humans after exposure to experimentally infected pigs. J Infect Dis 175 : 7– 15.[PubMed]
163. Cohen J . 2009. Flu researchers train sights on novel tricks of novel N1H1. Science 324 : 870– 871.
164. Kelly H, Peck HA, Laurie KL, Wu P, Nishiura H, Cowling BJ . 2011. The age-specific cumulative incidence of infection with pandemic influenza H1N1 2009 was similar in various countries prior to vaccination. PLoS One 6 : e21828.[PubMed]
165. World Health Organization . 2016. Cumulative Number of Confirmed Human Cases for Avian Influenza A (H5N1) Reported to WHO. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
166. Ruef C . 2004. Immunization for hospital staff. Curr Opin Infect Dis 17 : 335– 339.[PubMed]
167. von Hoersten B, Sharland M . 2004. RSV and influenza. Treatment and prevention. Adv Exp Med Biol 549 : 169– 175.[PubMed]
168. De Clercq E . 2004. Antiviral drugs in current clinical use. J Clin Virol 30 : 115– 133.[PubMed]
169. Schmidt AC . 2004. Antiviral therapy for influenza: a clinical and economic comparative review. Drugs 64 : 2031– 2046.[PubMed]
170. Barkley WE, Richardson JH, . 1984. Control of biohazards associated with the use of experimental animals, p 595– 602. In Fox JG, Cohen BE, Loew FM (ed), Laboratory Animal Medicine. American College of Laboratory Animal Medicine. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
171. Mufson MA, . 1989. Parainfluenza viruses, mumps, and Newcastle disease virus, p 669– 691. In Schmidt N, Emmons R, Diagnostic Procedures for Viral, Rickettsial, and Chlamydial Infections. American Public Health Association, Washington, DC.
172. Centers for Disease Control . 1971. Hepatitis surveillance. Report no. 34, p 10– 14. Centers for Disease Control, Atlanta, GA.[PubMed]
173. Anonymous . 1991. Update on adult immunization. Recommendations of the Immunization Practices Advisory Committee (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep 40( RR-12) : 1– 94.[PubMed]
174. Fenner F . 1990. Wallace P. Rowe lecture. Poxviruses of laboratory animals. Lab Anim Sci 40 : 469– 480.[PubMed]
175. Breman JG, Kalisa-Ruti, Steniowski MV, Zanotto E, Gromyko AI, Arita I . 1980. Human monkeypox, 1970–79. Bull World Health Organ 58 : 165– 182.[PubMed]
176. Jezek Z, Arita I, Mutombo M, Dunn C, Nakano JH, Szczeniowski M . 1986. Four generations of probable person-to-person transmission of human monkeypox. Am J Epidemiol 123 : 1004– 1012.[PubMed]
177. Soave O . 1981. Viral infections common to human and nonhuman primates. J Am Vet Med Assoc 179 : 1385– 1388.[PubMed]