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Chapter 32 : Probiotics and Prebiotics

Authors: Mary Ellen Sanders1, Yong Jun Goh2, Todd R. Klaenhammer3
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Affiliations: 1: Dairy & Food Culture Technologies, Centennial, Colorado; 2: Department of Food, Bioprocessing and Nutrition Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina; 3: Department of Food, Bioprocessing and Nutrition Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
Content Type: Reference
Publication Year: 2019

Category: Food Microbiology

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Abstract:

Probiotics, live microorganisms that, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit on the host, and prebiotics, substrates that are selectively utilized by host microorganisms conferring a health benefit, make up a group of highly researched substances targeted at influencing microbiota-mediated functions for the benefit of the host. Evidence that probiotics and prebiotics can benefit human and animal health continues to build and fuel basic research on mechanisms, genomics, and genetic improvement of these substances. This chapter explores basic mechanisms of probiotic and prebiotic function, next-generation probiotics and prebiotics, comparative genomics, taxonomy and molecular identification, health benefits for humans and animals, and safety and regulatory issues.

Citation: Sanders M, Goh Y, Klaenhammer T. 2019. Probiotics and Prebiotics, p 831-854. In Doyle M, Diez-Gonzalez F, Hill C (ed), Food Microbiology: Fundamentals and Frontiers, 5th Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555819972.ch32
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Probiotics and Prebiotics
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Citation: Sanders M, Goh Y, Klaenhammer T. 2019. Probiotics and Prebiotics, p 831-854. In Doyle M, Diez-Gonzalez F, Hill C (ed), Food Microbiology: Fundamentals and Frontiers, 5th Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555819972.ch32
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Figure 32.1
Elie Metchnikoff (1845–1916) ( ).
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Figure 32.1

Elie Metchnikoff (1845–1916) ( ).

Citation: Sanders M, Goh Y, Klaenhammer T. 2019. Probiotics and Prebiotics, p 831-854. In Doyle M, Diez-Gonzalez F, Hill C (ed), Food Microbiology: Fundamentals and Frontiers, 5th Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555819972.ch32
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Figure 32.2
Probiotics: what is encompassed under this term. By definition, a health benefit must be demonstrated for a probiotic, either at a strain-specific level or at a taxonomic level where mechanisms are shared. Probiotics can be administered via different routes (oral, intravaginal, and topical routes and via mouth sprays) and are not limited to human use (i.e., they may also be given to companion animals, livestock, and fish). The probiotic definition is not restricted by regulatory category for probiotics and encompasses the spectrum from foods to drugs (live biotherapeutic agents). Dead microbes, microbial end products, microbial components, and undefined microbial mixes do not come under the probiotic classification. Adapted from reference with permission.
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Figure 32.2

Probiotics: what is encompassed under this term. By definition, a health benefit must be demonstrated for a probiotic, either at a strain-specific level or at a taxonomic level where mechanisms are shared. Probiotics can be administered via different routes (oral, intravaginal, and topical routes and via mouth sprays) and are not limited to human use (i.e., they may also be given to companion animals, livestock, and fish). The probiotic definition is not restricted by regulatory category for probiotics and encompasses the spectrum from foods to drugs (live biotherapeutic agents). Dead microbes, microbial end products, microbial components, and undefined microbial mixes do not come under the probiotic classification. Adapted from reference with permission.

Citation: Sanders M, Goh Y, Klaenhammer T. 2019. Probiotics and Prebiotics, p 831-854. In Doyle M, Diez-Gonzalez F, Hill C (ed), Food Microbiology: Fundamentals and Frontiers, 5th Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555819972.ch32
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Figure 32.3
Genome atlas of the probiotic strain NCFM, presenting a circular view of the complete genome. The key describes the single circles in the top-down outermost-innermost direction ( ).
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Figure 32.3

Genome atlas of the probiotic strain NCFM, presenting a circular view of the complete genome. The key describes the single circles in the top-down outermost-innermost direction ( ).

Citation: Sanders M, Goh Y, Klaenhammer T. 2019. Probiotics and Prebiotics, p 831-854. In Doyle M, Diez-Gonzalez F, Hill C (ed), Food Microbiology: Fundamentals and Frontiers, 5th Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555819972.ch32
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Figure 32.4
Overview of indications where probiotics have been researched with varying but solid evidence for clinical benefit. RTI, respiratory tract infection; GI, gastrointestinal.
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Figure 32.4

Overview of indications where probiotics have been researched with varying but solid evidence for clinical benefit. RTI, respiratory tract infection; GI, gastrointestinal.

Citation: Sanders M, Goh Y, Klaenhammer T. 2019. Probiotics and Prebiotics, p 831-854. In Doyle M, Diez-Gonzalez F, Hill C (ed), Food Microbiology: Fundamentals and Frontiers, 5th Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555819972.ch32
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Figure 32.5
Comparison of the complete genome sequences of subsp. DSM 10140 and Bl-04, showing a hierarchical clustering analysis of subsp. strains across 50 genetic loci. Rows represent strains, and columns represent genetic loci. Numbers on the right indicate strain clusters, and numbers on the bottom indicate genetic locus clusters. Colored squares correspond to the sequence type at each locus. Blue represents strain DSMZ 10140, red represents strain Bl-04, and gray represents unique sequence ( ).
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Figure 32.5

Comparison of the complete genome sequences of subsp. DSM 10140 and Bl-04, showing a hierarchical clustering analysis of subsp. strains across 50 genetic loci. Rows represent strains, and columns represent genetic loci. Numbers on the right indicate strain clusters, and numbers on the bottom indicate genetic locus clusters. Colored squares correspond to the sequence type at each locus. Blue represents strain DSMZ 10140, red represents strain Bl-04, and gray represents unique sequence ( ).

Citation: Sanders M, Goh Y, Klaenhammer T. 2019. Probiotics and Prebiotics, p 831-854. In Doyle M, Diez-Gonzalez F, Hill C (ed), Food Microbiology: Fundamentals and Frontiers, 5th Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555819972.ch32
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Figure 32.6
Bacteriocin production by UCC118 protects against EGDe infection of mice. (Top left) Bacteriocin production by wild-type (wt) UCC118 and the non-bacteriocin-producing mutant. (Bottom left) Bars represent mice fed placebo (black), UCC118 (white), or a non-bacteriocin-producing mutant of UCC118 (gray). (Right) Image on the cover of shows livers of mice that are colonized with luminescent EGDe, in red. Adapted from reference with permission.
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Figure 32.6

Bacteriocin production by UCC118 protects against EGDe infection of mice. (Top left) Bacteriocin production by wild-type (wt) UCC118 and the non-bacteriocin-producing mutant. (Bottom left) Bars represent mice fed placebo (black), UCC118 (white), or a non-bacteriocin-producing mutant of UCC118 (gray). (Right) Image on the cover of shows livers of mice that are colonized with luminescent EGDe, in red. Adapted from reference with permission.

Citation: Sanders M, Goh Y, Klaenhammer T. 2019. Probiotics and Prebiotics, p 831-854. In Doyle M, Diez-Gonzalez F, Hill C (ed), Food Microbiology: Fundamentals and Frontiers, 5th Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555819972.ch32
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Figure 32.7
Pili expressed by (left) ( ) and (right) ( ).
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Figure 32.7

Pili expressed by (left) ( ) and (right) ( ).

Citation: Sanders M, Goh Y, Klaenhammer T. 2019. Probiotics and Prebiotics, p 831-854. In Doyle M, Diez-Gonzalez F, Hill C (ed), Food Microbiology: Fundamentals and Frontiers, 5th Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555819972.ch32
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Figure 32.8
Examples of prebiotic oligosaccharides with demonstrated health effects through modulation of beneficial microbiota. FF, FOS generated from partial hydrolysis of inulin; GF, FOS synthesized from sucrose; LNB, lacto--biose I; LNT, lacto--tetraose. The structure of HMO is modified from reference ; figure modified from reference .
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Figure 32.8

Examples of prebiotic oligosaccharides with demonstrated health effects through modulation of beneficial microbiota. FF, FOS generated from partial hydrolysis of inulin; GF, FOS synthesized from sucrose; LNB, lacto--biose I; LNT, lacto--tetraose. The structure of HMO is modified from reference ; figure modified from reference .

Citation: Sanders M, Goh Y, Klaenhammer T. 2019. Probiotics and Prebiotics, p 831-854. In Doyle M, Diez-Gonzalez F, Hill C (ed), Food Microbiology: Fundamentals and Frontiers, 5th Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555819972.ch32
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Figure 32.9
Metabolism of prebiotic compounds by beneficial gut microbiota and probiotic microorganisms, by which the resulting population is enhanced directly and indirectly (via substrate cross-feeding and metabolic cross-feeding) and which has health-promoting effects on the host. SCFAs are an essential energy source for colonic epithelial cells and serve as growth factors for some beneficial bacteria. These metabolites have also been associated with maintenance of gut barrier integrity, immunomodulatory functions, and host signaling ( ). Dashed arrows indicate cross-feeding of hydrolyzed prebiotic substrate intermediates and SCFA metabolites.
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Figure 32.9

Metabolism of prebiotic compounds by beneficial gut microbiota and probiotic microorganisms, by which the resulting population is enhanced directly and indirectly (via substrate cross-feeding and metabolic cross-feeding) and which has health-promoting effects on the host. SCFAs are an essential energy source for colonic epithelial cells and serve as growth factors for some beneficial bacteria. These metabolites have also been associated with maintenance of gut barrier integrity, immunomodulatory functions, and host signaling ( ). Dashed arrows indicate cross-feeding of hydrolyzed prebiotic substrate intermediates and SCFA metabolites.

Citation: Sanders M, Goh Y, Klaenhammer T. 2019. Probiotics and Prebiotics, p 831-854. In Doyle M, Diez-Gonzalez F, Hill C (ed), Food Microbiology: Fundamentals and Frontiers, 5th Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555819972.ch32
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Figure 32.10
Molecular mechanisms of prebiotic FOS and GOS uptake and catabolism identified among intestine-associated lactobacilli. A diverse array of transport systems (ABC transporter, sucrose and fructose PTSs, symporter) and hydrolytic pathways (intracellular versus extracellular) have evolved for FOS utilization in these organisms (top). Uptake of GOS is mainly mediated by lactose permeases and is hydrolyzed by cytoplasmic β-galactosidases (bottom). Note that no LacS permease ortholog was identified in the group. FFase, β-fructofuranosidase or β-fructosidase; ~P, phosphorylation of the substrate intermediate during the uptake process via PTS; an asterisk indicates that the transporter system was predicted based on analysis.
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Image of Figure 32.10
Figure 32.10

Molecular mechanisms of prebiotic FOS and GOS uptake and catabolism identified among intestine-associated lactobacilli. A diverse array of transport systems (ABC transporter, sucrose and fructose PTSs, symporter) and hydrolytic pathways (intracellular versus extracellular) have evolved for FOS utilization in these organisms (top). Uptake of GOS is mainly mediated by lactose permeases and is hydrolyzed by cytoplasmic β-galactosidases (bottom). Note that no LacS permease ortholog was identified in the group. FFase, β-fructofuranosidase or β-fructosidase; ~P, phosphorylation of the substrate intermediate during the uptake process via PTS; an asterisk indicates that the transporter system was predicted based on analysis.

Citation: Sanders M, Goh Y, Klaenhammer T. 2019. Probiotics and Prebiotics, p 831-854. In Doyle M, Diez-Gonzalez F, Hill C (ed), Food Microbiology: Fundamentals and Frontiers, 5th Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555819972.ch32
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Tables

Probiotics and Prebiotics
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Citation: Sanders M, Goh Y, Klaenhammer T. 2019. Probiotics and Prebiotics, p 831-854. In Doyle M, Diez-Gonzalez F, Hill C (ed), Food Microbiology: Fundamentals and Frontiers, 5th Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555819972.ch32
/content/10.1128/9781555819972.ch32.ch32tab1
Table 32.1
Terminology related to probiotics
Generic image for table
Table 32.1

Terminology related to probiotics

Citation: Sanders M, Goh Y, Klaenhammer T. 2019. Probiotics and Prebiotics, p 831-854. In Doyle M, Diez-Gonzalez F, Hill C (ed), Food Microbiology: Fundamentals and Frontiers, 5th Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555819972.ch32
/content/10.1128/9781555819972.ch32.ch32tab2
Table 32.2
Mechanisms of action that may mediate health benefits conferred by specific probiotic strains
Generic image for table
Table 32.2

Mechanisms of action that may mediate health benefits conferred by specific probiotic strains

Citation: Sanders M, Goh Y, Klaenhammer T. 2019. Probiotics and Prebiotics, p 831-854. In Doyle M, Diez-Gonzalez F, Hill C (ed), Food Microbiology: Fundamentals and Frontiers, 5th Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555819972.ch32
/content/10.1128/9781555819972.ch32.ch32tab3
Table 32.3
Examples of probiotic strains with research documentation in human subjects
Generic image for table
Table 32.3

Examples of probiotic strains with research documentation in human subjects

Citation: Sanders M, Goh Y, Klaenhammer T. 2019. Probiotics and Prebiotics, p 831-854. In Doyle M, Diez-Gonzalez F, Hill C (ed), Food Microbiology: Fundamentals and Frontiers, 5th Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555819972.ch32
/content/10.1128/9781555819972.ch32.ch32tab4
Table 32.4
Characteristics important for probiotic strains
Generic image for table
Table 32.4

Characteristics important for probiotic strains

Citation: Sanders M, Goh Y, Klaenhammer T. 2019. Probiotics and Prebiotics, p 831-854. In Doyle M, Diez-Gonzalez F, Hill C (ed), Food Microbiology: Fundamentals and Frontiers, 5th Edition. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1128/9781555819972.ch32

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